Social Identity and Ornamentation in the Ancestral Puebloan Southwest: Basketmaker II to Pueblo IV by Zonna Barnes B.A., Fort Lewis College, 2003 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Colorado in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology 2010 This thesis entitled: Social Identity and Ornamentation in the Ancestral Puebloan Southwest: Basketmaker II to Pueblo IV written by Zonna Barnes has been approved for the Department of Anthropology (Catherine M. Cameron, committee chair) (Stephen H. Lekson) Date The final copy of this thesis has been examined by the signatories, and we Find that both the content and the form meet acceptable presentation standards Of scholarly work in the above mentioned discipline. Barnes, Zonna (MA, Anthropology) Social Identity and Ornamentation in the Ancestral Puebloan Southwest: Basketmaker II to Pueblo IV Thesis directed by Professor Catherine M. Cameron In the northern Southwest, items of personal adornment were an important component of ceremonial costuming and everyday dress that can provide a wealth of information about the past. People use items of adornment to communicate information about themselves in a non-verbal manner and as a result, these items of adornment are informative of social identity, including age, gender, occupation, social status, ethnicity, social group membership, or ceremonial affiliation. In this thesis, I explore the materialization of social identity as it is communicated or symbolized through personal adornment by examining archaeological evidence from 68 sites in the Ancestral Puebloan Southwest that date between 1200 B.C and 1400 A.D. Multiple lines of evidence are used (ornaments, mortuary data, ethnographic data, and representational media) to attempt to understand and interpret personal adornment practices in the past, and assess how ornaments intersect with these social aspects. The results of this study demonstrate differences in the styles and types of ornaments in relation to age, gender, status and group membership. iii Acknowledgements I would like to extend my gratitude to several people that were integral in the completion of this thesis. First, I would like to thank my advisor, Cathy Cameron for her constant support, patience, understanding and guidance. I would also like to thank my committee members, Steve Lekson and Tammy Stone for their comments and willingness to participate in this endeavor. The research conducted for this thesis at the American Museum of Natural History and the Peabody Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology was funded by grants from the Walker Van Riper grant awarded by the CU Museum of Natural History and the Alice Hamilton Scholarship Fund from the Colorado Historical Society. I would like to thank Susan Haskell at the Peabody Museum of Anthropology and Ethnology and Anibal Rodriguez at the American Museum of Natural History for helping me with my research and allowing me access to the collections. Finally, without the support and encouragement of my family and friends this thesis would not be possible. I am indebted to you all for your unconditional support and it means more to me than words can say. iv Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………….……..……………………….1 The Data Set……………………………………………………………………………….4 Identity…………………………………………………………...………………………..6 Sources of Interpretation………………………………………….……………………...10 Ornamentation……………………………………………….……………………….10 Mortuary Data………………………………………………………………………..12 Imagery……………………………...……………………………………………….13 Ethnography………………………………………………………………………….15 Organization of Thesis….………………………………………………………………..16 Chapter 2: Context and Background………………………………………………….19 Culture History of the Study Area…………………………………………………….....19 Basketmaker II……………………………………………………………………….20 Basketmaker III………………………………………………………………………26 Pueblo I………………………………………………………………………………28 Pueblo II……………………………………………………………………………...30 Pueblo III – A.D. 1150-1300………………………………………………………...33 Pueblo IV – 1300-1540………………………………………………………………36 Overview of Ornament Research in the Ancestral Puebloan Southwest...........................38 Raw Materials and Ornament Manufacture………………………………………….39 Distribution and Trade……………………………………………………………….42 Ornament Styles and Types………………………………………………………….46 Ornament Use………………………………………………………………………..48 Ornaments and Dress………………………………………………………………...51 Chapter 3: Social Identity and Adornment…………………………………………...53 Identity……………………………………………………………………………….53 Identity and Performance..…………………………………………………………...55 Identity and Inscription…..…………………………………………………………..57 Embodiment……..………………………………………………………………...…60 Dress and Identity …………………………………..……………………………….61 Adornment and Aesthetics ………………………………..…………………………63 A Theoretical Approach to Personal Adornment……………………………………...…64 Adornment and Identity in the Southwest……………………………………………….67 Group Membership, Social Role, Status, Sex/Gender and Age and Artifacts of Personal Adornment………………………………………………………………….69 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..94 Chapter 4: Analytical Methods………………………………………………….…….96 Burial Data…………………………………………………………………………...…102 Site Data………………………………………………………………………...………102 Ornament Analysis Data……………………………………………………………..…102 v Material Types……………………………………………………………………...108 Manufacture………………………………………………………………………...111 Visual Media and Ethnographic Data ……………………………………………….....113 Limitations of the Data Set…………………………………………………………..…121 Mortuary Data: Interpretative Difficulties and Interpretive Potential……………...122 Ornament Analysis: Interpretive Difficulties……………………………………….131 Ethnographic Analysis: Interpretive Difficulties …………………………………..133 Chapter 5: Sources for Interpretation of Personal Adornment and Identity: Iconography and Ethnography…………………………………………………….....135 Imagery and Adornment………………………………………………………...……135 Rock Art…………………………………………………………………………….136 Kiva Murals………………………………………………………………………...139 Comparison of the Murals: Implications for Ornaments and Identity……………...159 Other Media………………………………………………………..……………….160 Adornment and Ethnography…………………………………………………………161 Chapter 6: Results and Interpretations.......................................................................172 The Burial Population ……………………………………………………………….…172 Ornaments in the Northern Southwest………………………………………………….175 Ornaments and Status…………………………………………………………………..203 Temporal Distribution of Ornaments…………………………………………………...205 Group Membership……………………………………………………………………..222 Summary…………………………………………………….………………………….229 Chapter 7: Conclusions and Future Research ………………………………….......230 Adornment and Adults………………………………………………………………….231 Adornment and Subadults……………………………………………………………....234 Dress and Adornment: Future Research………………………………………………..237 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..………….239 References Cited.............................................................................................................240 Appendix A. Ornament and Burial Data……………………………………………265 vi List of Tables Table 2.1. Pecos Classification System Phases (adapted from Lipe 2003:Table 1.1)…...20 Table 2.2. Jernigan’s (1978) Bead Types by Period……………………………………..47 Table 2.3. Jernigan’s (1978) Pendant Types by Period………………………………….47 Table 2.4. Jernigan’s (1978) Other Ornament Types by Period…………………………48 Table 5.1. Kuaua Layer H-31…………………………………………………………..144 Table 5.2. Kuaua Layer G-26…………………………………………………………..145 Table 5.3. Kuaua - Other Layers…………………………….…………………….……146 Table 5.4. Pottery Mound Murals………………………………………………………150 Table 5.5. Awatovi and Kawaika-a……………………………………………………..157 Table 6.1: Distribution of Age and Sex for Single and Multiple Burials with Ornaments …………………………………………………………………………………………..173 Table 6.2. Ornament Material Types…………………………………...………………178 Table 6.3. Distribution of Ornament Types by Age and Sex…………………………...179 Table 6.4. Bead Styles………………………………………………………………….180 Table 6.5. Pendant Styles…………………………………………………...…………..181 Table 6.6. Distribution of hair ornaments and combs…………………………………..183 Table 6.7. Distribution of rings…………………………………………………………184 Table 6.8. Distribution of buttons…………………………………………...………….184 Table 6.9. Distribution of shell bilobed beads………………………………………….185 Table 6.10. Distribution of stone bilobed beads…………………………….………….186 Table 6.11. Flat Stone Disc Beads……………………………………………………...187 Table 6.12. Shell Disc Beads………………………………………………………...…188 Table 6.13. Distribution of Glycymeris shell bracelets…………………………………189 Table 6.14. Glycymeris Shell Pendants……………………………………….………..191 Table 6.15. Distribution of shaped shell pendants………………………………..…….192 Table 6.16. Distribution of shell tinklers……………………………………………….194 Table 6.17. Distribution of Olivella shell beads……………………………………......195 Table 6.18. Ornament locations on the body…………………….……………………..198 Table 6.19. Distribution of Olivella shell bead bracelets worn on left wrist……..…….201 Table 6.20. Distribution of Olivella shell bead bracelets worn on right wrist………….202 Table 6.21. Distribution of earrings…………………………………………………….202 Table 6.22. Earrings located near the ear……………………………………………….203 Table 6.23. Number of Ornaments by Gender and Age………………………………..204 Table 6.24. Ornament Types by Time period………………………..…………………207 Table 6.25. Distribution of Ornaments – Basketmaker II………………………………209 Table 6.26. Distribution of Basketmaker II Ornaments by Region………………….....210 Table 6.27. Distribution of Basketmaker III Ornaments……………………………….211 Table 6.28. Distribution of Basketmaker III Ornaments by Region…………………...211 Table 6.29. Distribution