Enclaves as Process Space, Security and Violence in Karachi Sobia Ahmad Kaker School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Newcastle University Thesis Submitted for Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2015 ABSTRACT Presenting a case study of enclavisation and violence in Karachi (Pakistan) as relational processes, this interdisciplinary project addresses key conceptual and empirical gaps in the scholarship on enclaves and enclaved urbanism. The project is presented in two parts. In the first part, I highlight that urban residential enclaves are presently under- theorised in the urban studies literature. Consequently, scholars and policymakers often problematically regard enclavisation as a response to increasing crime and violence in the city and not as a process that perpetuates urban violence. Engaging with relational theories of space, and using the concepts of assemblage and performativity, I re-theorise enclaves as relational and processual socio-material and socio-political assemblages best characterised through the arrangements through which space, security and circulation are governed in the city. In the second part of this project, I use this re-conceptualisation to review empirical evidence from three different types of residential enclaves in Karachi. First, I introduce my study sites by demonstrating how each residential enclave crystallises through differential multi-scalar relations between urban governance and political life. Next, I move on to show how Karachi’s enclaves are often performatively and discursively constructed, and are made apparent through patterns of circulation rather than physical form. By revealing the underlying tensions, contests and negotiations between variously positioned actors interacting within and between Karachi’s enclaves, I establish that enclaves are dynamic spaces. Moreover, in emphasising the ways in which processes of enclavisation shape urban socio-spatial relations and restructure wider relations of power and politics in the Pakistani megacity, I finally establish that urban residential enclaves are agential geo-political processes which perpetuate violence and conflict in an already divided megacity. In conclusion, I argue that this project makes important contributions for scholars and policymakers engaging with enclaves, urban governance, security and violence. i DEDICATION This thesis is lovingly dedicated to my parents, Dr. Nazeer Ahmad and Tahira Parveen Ahmad, who have always encouraged me to be curious and to question things. It is also dedicated to my dear husband, Usman Ali Kaker, who has consistently believed in me more than I have believed in myself. This work would not have been possible without the inspiration, selfless love and continuous support all three have provided. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Looking back at the years I have worked on this project, I recognise that this thesis is the culmination not just of my own efforts, but also of those of many who have knowingly or unknowingly been an integral part of this journey. Here, I would like to acknowledge the contribution of my mentors, colleagues, friends and of course my family in Pakistan and the U.K. It would have been impossible to produce this piece of work without their overwhelming support and encouragement. Firstly, I owe an immeasurable debt of gratitude to my supervisors, Stephen Graham and Martin Coward. In choosing me from the range of applicants who applied for the Newcastle University studentship on Cities, Infrastructure and Political Violence, both Steve and Martin provided me with an opportunity for which I am eternally grateful. From thereon, they have played a significant role in helping me develop this project, as well as my professional career. I am very appreciative of both Steve’s and Martin’s enthusiasm for my work, and their generosity in providing advice on any issue about which I approached them. They have contributed greatly to this project and to my own professional development—from introducing me to novel concepts and methods to providing advice and support for participation in workshops, teaching assignments, publications and job applications. Most of all, I am obliged for their tireless efforts in pushing me to improve my work. From the very beginning, Steve’s encouragements for me to ‘find the Sobia-isation’ of this project, and Martin’s close reading of multiple drafts of my work and their combined dedication to pushing me to find my ‘critical voice’ have allowed me develop my ideas more clearly and forcefully. I really am very grateful for the unsurpassable support they have offered me by generously sharing their thoughts, comments and critiques throughout the process. I could not have wished for a better supervisory team! Secondly, I must thank my colleagues at LSE Cities, who perhaps may not be aware of their substantial influence on my research. I especially appreciate the fact that Austin Zeiderman, Ricky Burdett and Philipp Rode provided me with the space and flexibility to pursue my PhD work alongside my work on the Urban Uncertainty project. Numerous conversations with Austin and Jonathan Silver stimulated my thoughts on global South urbanism, and the research we conducted for the Urban Uncertainty project helped me i think through governance in Karachi critically. Also, Suzi Hall and Alexandra Gomez deserve special thanks for their motivational talks when I needed them most. As well as enriching my PhD research, my experience at LSE Cities gave me the motivation to finish the project quickly, so that I may move on to the exciting world of professional life. Yet, completing this project would not have been possible without the generosity of colleagues, friends and family in Karachi. Haris Gazdar played a significant role as a sincere advisor and mentor throughout my research career prior to and during this project. I am grateful for being granted affiliation at the Collective for Social Sciences Research (Karachi) as a Visiting Research Associate in the first year of this project. In that capacity, I was able to organise brownbag sessions and get feedback from renowned researchers within the collective such as Haris, Asad Sayeed, Ayesha Khan, Irfan Khan, Hussain Bux Mallah and Faiza Mushtaq amongst others. It was in various conversations around the lunch table at the Collective that I started thinking of disconnects between the present conceptualisations of enclaves and the ground realities of Karachi. Of course, I must also thank all those in Karachi who accommodated my multiple requests for meetings and interviews, and who very kindly shared information and expertise. There are really too many to name—Arif Hasan, Nausheen Anwar, Jameel Yusuf, Sharfuddin Memon, Ahmed Chinoy, Kamran Khan and the late Perween Rahman were key amongst these. It grieves me that my acknowledgement will not be read by Perween, who was brutally killed in March 2013. Others too, who have been of immense help to me, have met a similarly violent fate. In late 2013 just after my last visit to Karachi, I was saddened to hear of the assassination of Mairaj Khattak and Sultan Beg in Sultanabad—less well known, but no less heroic than Perween. I am forever grateful for their generosity in welcoming and facilitating an awkward and curious ‘outsider’ to Sultanabad. Through their support, I was able to conduct research in a place which would have been impossible to access otherwise. The loss of their goodwill and selfless devotion to enriching the lives of people in Sultanabad has left a void in the hearts of many, myself included. I am also extremely grateful to my respondents in Clifton Block 7, Askari III and Sultanabad. I am indebted for their unsurmountable hospitality and kindness in welcoming me into their lives. This list of acknowledgements of people in Karachi is incomplete without mention of my brother and sister in law, Usman and Fatima, and my close friends Salina and Faisal, who ii provided me with a home away from home during my prolonged visits. I disrupted all their lives in many ways while staying with them for months on end. All four have borne this trial with utmost grace, especially as I would make off with their cars or keep plans on hold while waiting to hear back from respondents. Other than providing exemplary support, Usman, Fatima, Salina and Faisal have also assisted my research by introducing me to their networks in Karachi. Most of all, I must thank Usman for accompanying me to places I was uncomfortable visiting alone, cruising around town with me while I took suspect photographs, and even sending me pictures, texts and maps which I often desperately needed when away from Karachi. Finally, I cannot fail to acknowledge the enormous support that other colleagues, friends and family have shown me throughout my years as a post-graduate research student. Marian Kyte at Newcastle University has always been someone I could count on for help in navigating the various administrative issues attached to being a student at a British university. Colleagues at the School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape and Politics at Newcastle University have made my time at Newcastle memorable. I would especially like to thank Tugce and Ulpia for their constant friendship, and particularly Chryssa, without whose companionship my life as a PhD student would not have been half as enjoyable or even manageable! Also, I could not have wished for more understanding friends and family, who have patiently tolerated missed celebrations and continued absences, all in the name of PhD related deadlines. I would especially like to acknowledge the kind support that my family have showered me with throughout these years. Thanks to my father, for taking a keen interest in my work, offering perceptive feedback and advice and showing such pride in all my achievements, and to my mother, who has at times offered to visit me in Karachi to assist me in my fieldwork if I would allow her to. Their enthusiasm for my work has often motivated me when I have needed it most.