APPLICATIVES IN SALISH LANGUAGES Kaoru Kiyosawa B.A., Takushoku University, 1993 M.A., University of Hawaii, 1998 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Department of Linguistics O Kaoru Kiyosawa 2006 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2006 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Kaoru Kiyosawa Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Thesis: Applicatives in Salish Languages Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Chung-hye Han Assistant Professor of Linguistics Dr. Donna B. Gerdts Senior Supervisor Professor of Linguistics Dr. Nancy Hedberg Supervisor Associate Professor of Linguistics Dr. Thomas E. Hukari Supervisor Associate Professor of Linguistics, University of Victoria Dr. Panayiotis Pappas Internal Examiner Assistant Professor of Linguistics Dr. David Beck External Examiner Associate Professor of Linguistics University of Alberta Date DefendedIApproved: DECLARATION OF PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENCE The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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This information may be found on the separately catalogued multimedia material and in the signed Partial Copyright Licence. The original Partial Copyright Licence attesting to these terms, and signed by this author, may be found in the original bound copy of this work, retained in the Simon Fraser University Archive, Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Revised: Fall 2006 STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a) Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal Care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-investigator, in a research project approved in advance, (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Office of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada ABSTRACT This thesis is a study of applicative constructions in Salish, a family of twenty- three languages spoken in British Columbia and the northwestern United States. In an applicative construction, an applicative morpheme is suffixed to the verb and the object bears a semantic role other than theme, such as dative, benefactive, locative, or stimulus. Each Salish language has from two to six different applicative suffixes. I constructed a database of examples gleaned from secondary sources, cataloguing them for their syntactic and semantic properties. I show that applicative suffixes, like many verbal suffixes, do not always have a one-to-one correspondence between form and function. An applicative suffix may exhibit more than one semantic function, and a semantic function may be displayed by more than one applicative suffix. My research leads to the claim that Salish applicatives are divided into two types. Relational applicatives are based on intransitive verbs and differ according to the semantics of the verb. Redirective applicatives are based on transitive verbs and differ according to the semantics of the direct object. Each Salish language has at least one applicative of each type. Two applicative suffixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Salish: one relational and one redirective. Other applicatives have been innovated in sub- branches or individual languages. For example, Central Salish languages have multiple relational applicatives and Southern Interior Salish languages have multiple redirective applicatives. Tsamosan languages have both multiple redirective applicatives and multiple relational applicatives. The innovated applicatives usurp or augment the ... 111 functions of the two Proto-Salish applicatives, yielding a complex picture in the modern languages. Applicatives, especially relational applicatives, are rare in the world's languages. For example, they are completely lacking in English and other Indo-European languages. A catalog of the Salish data contributes to the study of linguistic typology. The presence of several applicatives in each language not only allows for comparison of applicative and non-applicative constructions but also of different kinds of applicatives. The properties I use to classify Salish applicatives-transitivity, verb class, semantic role, and discourse prominence-may prove useful in classifying applicatives in other languages. Keywords: Salish; applicative; morphosyntax; historical; typology Subject Terms: Salishan languages -- Morphology; Salishan languages -- Syntax; Applicative grammar; Grammar Comparative Salishan Languages DEDICATION To my grandmother and my parents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deep gratitude goes to Dale Kinkade, who was a member of my committee, but passed away before the thesis completed. I was very fortunate to take a seminar from him, and my class notes were a good starting point for my research. He gave me valuable comments on my earlier publications that were incorporated into this thesis. It was such an honour to know him academically and personally. When I started my doctoral program, I did not expect to have such a complex project for my thesis. Donna Gerdts helped me to start the project, shared her knowledge with me, supported me academically and emotionally, and got me through from the start to the finish of this thesis. I cannot thank her enough for everything she has done for me. It has been a real pleasure doing research with her. I also thank Thomas Hukari for sharing his insights about Halkomelem and for his many comments, and Nancy Hedberg for her encouragement and comments, especially on discourse analysis. I would also like to thank my other committee member, Panayiotis Pappas, for his comments and questions. My external examiner, David Beck, gave a thorough critique that led to many improvements. Charles Ulrich deserves special thanks for his assistance. His consistent writing advice and numerous comments made the thesis much more readable. I also thank Todd Peterson for editorial assistance. The contributions of the researchers who worked on Salish languages were essential to this thesis. Mercedes Hinkson has been very influential with respect to the historical analysis. I thank her for the beneficial discussions we have had, the comments she has made, and for her encouragement. I would also like to thank Jan van Eijk and Honor6 Watanabe for their comments and corrections. Thanks also to the Salishanists who took the time to respond to my inquiries: Dawn Bates, Shannon Bischoff, Ewa Czaykowska-Higgins, Ivy Doak, Brent Galloway, Dwight Gardiner, Anthony Mattina, Nancy Mattina, Timothy Montler, Nile Thompson, and especially Paul Kroeber. Any errors, incorrect lexical entries, or misinterpretations of the data remain my own responsibility. This thesis benefited greatly from fieldwork with speakers of the Salish languages. I especially thank Halkomelem speakers, Theresa Thorne and Ruby Peter, who shared their expertise with me. Support for my fieldwork came from the Jacobs Research Fund, the Phillips Fund, and SSHRC grants awarded to Donna Gerdts. This lengthy commitment would not have been possible without my family and friends, especially RenCe McCallum, who encouraged me throughout this journey. I thank them for being there for me whenever I needed them. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval ......................................................................................................................ii ... Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ill Dedication ...................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................vi