FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE SUCCESS AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FIELD BINDWEED GALL MITE ACERIA MALHERBAE NUZZACI (ACARI: ERIOPHYIDAE) by Evelyn Rivka Konigsberg A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Land Resources and Environmental Sciences MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana January 2014 ©COPYRIGHT by Evelyn Rivka Konigsberg 2014 All Rights Reserved ii APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Evelyn Rivka Konigsberg This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citation, bibliographic style, and consistency and is ready for submission to The Graduate School. Dr. Jeffrey Littlefield (Co-Chair) Dr. Tracy Sterling (Co-Chair) Approved for the Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences Dr. Tracy Sterling Approved for The Graduate School Dr. Karlene A. Hoo iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful for the large time and energy investments of my wonderful advisors, Dr. Jeffrey Littlefield and Dr. Tracy Sterling. I also am grateful to my committee members, including Dr. Lisa Rew, and my funding sources including the United States Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and the Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences throughout the pursuit of my Master’s degree. Anne de Meij, Joy Barsotti, Rebecca Clemens, Karen Palmer, Alan Erickson, Zuzana Gedeon, Terry Rick and so many others helped me troubleshoot and offered me encouragement along the way. I also greatly appreciate my family, including Alan Erickson and my parents, sisters, and nieces who continuously offered their love and support in addition to advice and support during the writing process. Finally, I would like to thank the countless students, faculty and staff at both Montana State University and New Mexico Tech who encouraged me to continue. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................1 Background and Statement of Interest ............................................................................1 Field Bindweed Distribution and Biology .......................................................................2 Management ....................................................................................................................4 Herbicide Effects on Plants .............................................................................................5 Herbicides Recommended for Use on Field Bindweed ..................................................8 Biological Control ...........................................................................................................9 History of Biological Control on Field Bindweed ........................................................10 Aceria Malherbae Distribution and Damage ................................................................12 Eriophyid Damage .........................................................................................................14 Factors Affecting Biological Control Establishment ....................................................16 2. IMPACTS OF SUB-LETHAL HERBICIDE APPLICATION ON ACERIA MALHERBAE, A BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT OF FIELD BINDWEED .....................................................................................................19 Introduction ...................................................................................................................19 Hypotheses and Objectives ...............................................................................22 Materials and Methods ..................................................................................................23 Plant Care ..........................................................................................................23 Experimental Design and Measurements ..........................................................24 Measurements ...................................................................................................26 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................26 Results ...........................................................................................................................27 Interaction Between Herbicide and A. Malherbae Inoculation ......................................................................................27 Herbicide Effects on Field Bindweed ...............................................................27 Aceria Malherbae Effects on Field Bindweed ..................................................28 Discussion .....................................................................................................................32 Variable Responses of Plants to Herbicide Treatment ..........................................................................................................32 Proposed Phenological Impact on Synergism Between Herbicide and A. Malherbae ..............................................................34 Implications for Management ...........................................................................34 v TABLE OF CONTENTS - CONTINUED 3. INFLUENCE OF WESTERN UNITED STATES FIELD BINDWEED POPULATIONS ON ACERIA MALHERBAE GALL INDUCTION ...........................36 Introduction ...................................................................................................................36 Hypotheses and Objectives ...............................................................................38 Materials and Methods ..................................................................................................39 Plant Propagation ..............................................................................................39 Measurements ...................................................................................................40 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................40 Results ...........................................................................................................................41 Interaction Between Location and A. Malherbae Inoculation ......................................................................................41 Location Effect on Field Bindweed Growth .....................................................42 Aceria Malherbae Effects on Field Bindweed ..................................................42 Discussion .....................................................................................................................46 Location and Aceria Malherbae Effects on Field Bindweed .................................................................................................46 Implications for Management ...........................................................................47 4. FIELD SURVEY OF ACERIA MALHERBAE: MITE PRESENCE AND INTER AND INTRA-FIELD SITE HABITAT VARIATIONS ..................................50 Introduction ...................................................................................................................50 Hypotheses and Objectives ...............................................................................51 Materials and Methods ..................................................................................................52 Sampling Design and Measurements ................................................................52 Sampling in 2007……………….................................................................52 Sampling in 2012……………………………………………………...…..52 Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................56 Analysis of 2007 Data……….………………………….…………………56 Analysis of 2012 Data..…… ………………………………………...……57 Results ...........................................................................................................................58 Results of 2007 Analysis ...................................................................................58 Results of 2012 Analyses ..................................................................................61 Discussion .....................................................................................................................64 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS - CONTINUED REFERENCES CITED ......................................................................................................67 APPENDICES...…………………………….…………………………………………...79 APPENDIX A: Site Characteristics of 71 Sites Surveyed in2007……..………..80 APPENDIX B: Site Characteristics of 15 Sites Surveyed in 2012……………...86 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2-1. Herbicide Recommended Rates and 25% Reduced Rates for Herbicide Application on Field Bindweed ............................................................25 2-2. Significance (P) of Treatment Interactions, Herbicide, and Aceria Malherbae on Plant Height, Total Stem Length, Number of Branches, Total Leaves, and Above Ground, Root and Total Plant Biomass of Field Bindweed Plants ........................................................................27 2-3. Growth Response of Field Bindweed to Low Level Herbicide and Inoculation Treatments ..........................................................................................30 2-4. Growth Response of Field Bindweed to Main Effects of Low Level Herbicide Pooled over Inoculation Treatment ......................................................31