ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ: WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL PERFORMING ARTS IN OGBARULAND by Marie Agatha Ozah B.A., Pontificio Istituto Di Musica Sacra, 1993 L.M., Pontificio Istituto Di Musica Sacra, 1994 M.A., Pontificio Istituto Di Musica Sacra, 1997 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2008 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Marie Agatha Ozah It was defended on March 21, 2008 and approved by Dr. Mary S. Lewis, PhD, Professor of Music Dr. Nathan T. Davis, PhD, Professor of Music Dr. Leonard Plotnicov, PhD, Professor of Anthropology Dissertation Co-Chair: Dr. Kofi V. Agawu, PhD, Professor of Music Dissertation Chair: Dr. Olatunji Akin Euba, PhD, Andrew Mellon Professor of Music ii © Marie Agatha Ozah 2008 iii ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ: WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL PERFORMING ARTS IN OGBARULAND Marie Agatha Ozah, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2008 Within the complex dynamics of gender relationships and roles among African peoples, women often exercise power through song and dance. Such is the case among the women of Ogbaruland in southern Nigeria who, in their performance of the dance drama Égwú Àmàlà, act as custodians of knowledge and tradition and as transmitters of culture. Apart from being a repository of information about artistic traditions, the genre also documents and enacts the history and culture of the Ogbaru people. Égwú Àmàlà, which is the subject of my dissertation, is the most popular of all Ogbaru women dance genres. The term Égwú Àmàlà literally means “paddle dance” or “paddle drama,” but it is often referred to as the “mermaid dance” or égwú mmili, that is, “water dance” because of its ritualistic associations with Onye-mmili, the water divinity. This genre is predominantly performed by women of all ages, with men playing secondary roles such as òpì (gourd horn) player and paddlers of canoes when the genre is performed in the river setting. My study of Égwú Àmàlà will add to a small but growing body of literature demonstrating how gender, a locus classicus for debates in contemporary scholarship, relates to other domains of culture such as musical performance, and how gender constructions can be articulated as well as negotiated in the genre and through the performing arts in general. Since the origin and performance of Égwú Àmàlà revolves around rituals and water, this dissertation also discusses the religious dimensions of the genre, stressing the importance of water to the iv dance, to the Ogbaru people and to African traditional religion as well. Considering the fact that women have for decades preserved Égwú Àmàlà, which epitomizes the culture and traditions of the Ogbaru people, the present investigation represents a significant contribution to ethnomusicological, gender, and cultural studies. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE............................................................................................................................... XVII 1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY............................................................................. 1 1.2 RESEARCH INQUIRY ...................................................................................... 3 1.3 ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA.................................................................................. 7 1.3.1 Geo-Cultural Scope of Study ....................................................................... 7 1.4 CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................................... 11 1.4.1 Toward a Dynamic Model of Musical Culture......................................... 11 1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 14 1.5.1 Égwú Àmàlà Music and Dance................................................................... 14 1.6 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................ 18 1.6.1 Formal and Informal Study ....................................................................... 18 1.6.2 Fieldwork..................................................................................................... 20 1.6.2.1 Negotiations in the Field..................................................................... 22 1.6.3 Research Tools ............................................................................................ 25 1.6.3.1 Interviews ............................................................................................ 25 1.6.3.2 Field Equipment.................................................................................. 26 1.6.3.3 Archival Research............................................................................... 27 vi 1.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA ...................................................................................... 28 1.8 KEY TO THE PRONOUNCIATION OF SOME IGBO WORDS............... 29 2.0 GENDER CONCEPTUALIZATION IN NIGERIAN SOCIETY ........................ 31 2.1 GENDER PERSPECTIVES IN IGBOLAND AND OGBARULAND ......... 36 2.1.1 Socio-cultural Construction of Gender..................................................... 36 2.1.1.1 Igbo Women in Politics ...................................................................... 40 2.1.1.2 Igbo Women and Religion.................................................................. 42 2.1.1.3 Igbo Women and Economy................................................................ 42 2.1.2 Some Aspects of European Cultural Influence in Igboland.................... 47 2.1.2.1. Christianity, Western Literacy, and Gender Construction........... 49 2.1.3 Divinities: Gender in Traditional Religious Practices............................. 55 2.1.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 58 3.0 ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ MUSICAL CULTURE .................................................................. 60 3.1 ORIGINS OF ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ ......................................................................... 61 3.1.1 Mythical Origin of Égwú Àmàlà ................................................................ 62 3.1.2 Historical Origin of Égwú Àmàlà............................................................... 64 3.1.2.1 Égwú Isha ............................................................................................ 65 3.1.2.2 Égwú Ojeni........................................................................................... 66 3.1.2.3 Égwú Ekwè........................................................................................... 67 3.1.2.4 Àmàlà Bu’ uyọ ..................................................................................... 68 3.2 CHIEF OGBUEFI BEAUTY OKAOME OBI AND ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ.......... 73 3.2.1 Beauty: the Woman, the Composer, the Dancer, and her Art ............... 74 3.2.2 Beauty’s Effect on Continuity and Change in Égwú Àmàlà ................... 79 vii 3.3 THE SOCIO-CULTURAL SETTING OF ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ.......................... 85 3.3.1 The place and importance of Égwú Àmàlà in Ogbaruland..................... 85 3.3.2 Performance Context and Uses of Égwú Àmàlà....................................... 86 3.3.2.1 Égwú Àmàlà and Identity................................................................... 87 3.3.2.2 Agent of education .............................................................................. 89 3.3.2.3 Music, Dance and Healing ................................................................. 90 3.3.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 92 4.0 THE RELIGIOUS DIMENSION OF ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ .......................................... 94 4.1 MAMI WATA: THE MYSTERIES OF THE UNDER WATER................... 96 4.2 ONYE’MILI AND ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ ................................................................ 100 4.2.1 The Mami Wata Icon and Ogbaru/Igbo Cosmology .............................. 100 4.2.1.1 Snakes as a Cultural phenomenon .................................................. 100 4.2.1.2 Colors in Igbo Tradition .................................................................. 101 4.3 POSSESSION-TRANCE IN ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ............................................... 106 4.4 ÉGWÚ ÀMÀLÀ AND CHRISTIAN SPIRITUALITY ................................. 110 4.4.1 Water.......................................................................................................... 113 4.4.2 Inculturation: Égwú Àmàlà in the Catholic Liturgy?............................ 115 4.4.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 119 5.0 MUSICAL COMPONENTS OF ENSEMBLE PRACTICE ............................... 121 5.1 INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLE ................................................................... 121 5.1.1 Ọkpọkọlọ (wood block) ............................................................................. 124 5.1.2 Ogénè (Metal clapperless bell) ................................................................. 127 5.1.3 Ìshàkà (Gourd rattle)................................................................................ 130 viii 5.1.4 Ùdùdù or Ùdù (Pot drum)......................................................................... 131 5.1.5 Òpì (Gourd horn) ...................................................................................... 134 5.1.5.1 The Speech function of the Òpì.......................................................