UNIVERSITA’ DEGLI STUDI DI CAGLIARI FACOLTA’ DI SCIENZE POLITICHE Dipartimento Storico Politico Internazionale dell´Età Moderna e Contemporanea Tesi di dottorato in: “Storia, Istituzioni e Relazioni Internazionali dell’Asia e dell’Africa Moderna e Contemporanea” XX Ciclo Intervento neo-mercenario o peacekeeping regionale? Un confronto tra Private Military Companies ed ECOMOG in Sierra Leone Dottorando: Dott. Antonino Adamo Tutor: Ch.ma Prof.ssa Liliana Mosca Settore Scientifico Disciplinare: SPS/13 INDICE Acronimi .......................................................................................................... p. ix Introduzione ..................................................................................................... p. xv Cap. I L’EROSIONE DELLA SOVRANITÀ STATUALE E LE “NUOVE GUERRE”.................................................................................... p. 1 La guerra e la nascita dello Stato moderno ................................. p. 4 La debolezza istituzionale dello stato africano indipendente...... p. 10 Verso un nuovo ordine mondiale e le “nuove guerre”................ p. 15 L’economia delle nuove guerre .................................................. p. 22 La globalizzazione e lo stato africano......................................... p. 25 La ricerca della sicurezza privata: la “domanda” e l’”offerta” ... p. 29 Cap. II LE PRIVATE MILITARY COMPANIES (PMC) NELL’AFRICA SUB-SAHARIANA. CASE STUDY: EXECUTIVE OUTCOMES (EO)............................................................................................. p. 35 I mercenari e l’età classica .......................................................... p. 37 Libere compagnie, condottieri, soldati di fortuna e compagnie commerciali ................................................................................. p. 39 I mercenari e le guerre coloniali.................................................. p. 44 L’origine delle PMC ................................................................... p. 48 Il mercato delle PMC in Africa................................................... p. 50 I tentativi di classificazione......................................................... p. 54 “Prendi un’arma e viaggerai”: origini e caratteristiche di EO... p. 63 La rete di affari di EO ................................................................. p. 70 L’intervento di EO in Angola ..................................................... p. 75 L’intervento di EO in Sierra Leone............................................. p. 81 Il prezzo della sicurezza.............................................................. p. 86 Sandline International in Sierra Leone e il prolungamento della guerra civile................................................................................. p. 90 Considerazioni su EO.................................................................. p. 94 Cap. III IL DIBATTITO SUL NEO-MERCENARIATO TRA DIRITTO E PROSPETTIVE DI REGOLAMENTAZIONE .......................... p. 101 Il diritto internazionale e il problema dei mercenari................... p. 105 v Esempi di legislazione nazionale ................................................ p. 111 Vantaggi connessi all’uso delle PMC ......................................... p. 114 PMC come strumenti di peacekeeping........................................ p. 118 Conclusioni ................................................................................. p. 124 Cap. IV CRITICA AL NEO-MERCENARIATO.................................... p. 125 Tra stato e mercato: l’intervento neo-mercenario nell’Africa sub- sahariana ...................................................................................... p. 127 La mancanza di controllo e le questioni di responsabilità .......... p. 129 Le questioni di neutralità ed affidabilità ..................................... p. 134 Le questioni di efficacia ed efficienza economica...................... p. 138 Conclusioni: mercenari ed insicurezza ....................................... p. 142 Cap. V VERSO UN SISTEMA DI SICUREZZA SUB-REGIONALE: IL CASO DELL’ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS) E DELL’ECOWAS CEASE-FIRE MONITORING GROUP (ECOMOG)....................................... p. 145 Il dilemma della sicurezza .......................................................... p. 148 Gli interventi di peacekeeping di “seconda generazione” .......... p. 151 I meccanismi di sicurezza dell’Unione Africana (UA) .............. p. 155 Dall’ECOWAS all’ECOMOG in Liberia (1990-1998).............. p. 159 Vizi e virtù di peacekeepers “per caso”...................................... p. 162 Cap. VI L’INTERVENTO DELL’ECOMOG IN SIERRA LEONE (1997-2000) .................................................................................................... p. 169 La ribellione del Revolutionary United Front (1991-2002) ....... p. 172 Il crollo dello stato...................................................................... p. 178 I prodromi e le prime fasi dell’intervento (1997) ....................... p. 181 Le operazioni sul campo............................................................. p. 186 Verso il ritiro del contingente (2000) ......................................... p. 189 Le cause militari della sconfitta.................................................. p. 192 La valutazione politica dell’intervento ....................................... p. 195 Conclusioni................................................................................. p. 199 Cap. VII ECOWAS/ECOMOG E LA SICUREZZA REGIONALE IN AFRICA OCCIDENTALE ........................................................................ p. 203 Il protocollo di sicurezza dell’ECOWAS (1999)........................ p. 205 Verso l’istituzionalizzazione dell’ECOMOG............................. p. 211 Le condizioni per il successo...................................................... p. 213 vi Gli interventi recenti dell’ECOWAS (2003): Costa d’Avorio e Liberia .................................................................................................... p. 215 Verso una “Pax West Africana”?................................................ p. 219 Conclusioni ...................................................................................................... p. 223 Bibliografia ...................................................................................................... p. 229 Appendici: • Papua New Guinea/Sandline International agreement -- January 1997; • Chronology of Sierra Leone (1991-2007); • ECOWAS Foreign Ministers Final Communiqué, Conakry, June 26, 1997; • ECOWAS Decision on Sierra Leone, Abuja, August 29, 1997; • Committee of Five Communiqué, Conakry, October 23, 1997; • Committee of Five Communiqué, Abuja, December 19, 1997; • ECOWAS Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peace-keeping and Security. vii ACRONIMI AAFC Allied Armed Forces of the Community ACOTA Africa Contingency Operations Training Assistance ACRI African Crisis Response Initiative AFDL Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre AFL Armed Forces of Liberia AFRC Armed Forces Ruling Council AFRICOM USA Africa Command AMIS African Union Monitoring Mission in Sudan AMISOM African Mission to Somalia ANAD Accord de non-agression et d’assistance en matière de défense ANC African National Congress APC All People’s Congress ARIB Africa Research and Information Bureau ASF African Stand-by Force BASIC British American Security Information Council BM Banca Mondiale BRA Bougainville Revolutionary Army BRS Brown & Root Services CCB Civil Cooperation Bureau CDF Civil Defence Forces CEAO Communauté économique de l’Afrique de l’Ouest CEDEAO Communauté des États de l’Afrique de l’Ouest CEO Chief Executive Officer CIA Central Intelligence Agency CMD Conflict Management Division CONAKAT Confédération des associations du Katanga CPA Coalition Provisional Authority CPLP Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa DCC Directorate of Covert Collection DSL Defence Systems Limited ix ECOFORCE ECOWAS Peace Force in Côte d’Ivoire ECOMICI ECOWAS Peacekeeping Force in Côte d’Ivoire ECOMIL ECOWAS Mission in Liberia ECOMOG ECOWAS Cease-fire Monitoring Group ECOWAP ECOWAS Common Agricultural Policy ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EO Executive Outcomes FAA Forças Armadas de Angola FAZ Forces Armées du Zaïre FDI Foreign Direct Investment FMI Fondo Monetario Internazionale FOB Forward Operation Base GPSP Global Peace and Security Partnership GSG Gurkha Security Guards IA International Alert ICI International Charter Inc. of Oregon IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IMET International Military and Education Training INPFL Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia IPOA International Peace Operation Organisation ISU Internal Security Unit ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulation LIC Low-Intensity Conflict LPC Liberian Peace Council LURD Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy MAP Mass Awareness and Participation MI Military Intelligence MINUCI Mission des Nations Unies en Côte d'Ivoire MNJ Mouvement des Nigériens pour la Justice MODEL Movement for Democracy in Liberia MONUC Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo MOOTW Military Operations Other Than War MOSOP Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola MPRI Military Professional Resources Incorporated x NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NPFL National Patriotic Front