UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN Cultural and Language Maintenance and Shift in an immigrant African community of KwaZulu-Natal: The Zanzibaris of Durban By Town Sarifa Moola-Nernaes MLXSAR003 Cape of Supervisor: Prof. Rajend Mesthrie UniversityThesis presented for the fulfilment of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Linguistics Section of the School of African & Gender Studies, Anthropology & Linguistics August 2018 The copyright of this thesis vests inTown the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes Capeonly. of Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University DECLARATION This work has not been previously submitted in whole, or in part, for the award of any degree. It is my own work. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Sarifa Moola-Nernaes Signature: ____________________ August 2018 ii ABSTRACT This thesis makes a contribution to the study of cultural and language maintenance and shift among minority communities in South Africa. It explores the contact situation and implications thereof of the Zanzibari speech community in the post-apartheid Rainbow Nation South Africa. It discusses identity, language, culture and religion of the community against the backdrop of the Simunye (We are one) rhetoric. This thesis also contributes to the documentation of the history and creates an awareness of existence of the Makhuwa and Emakhuwa as a minority language in South Africa. The data was collected using the triangulation method to effectively capture the relevant information and to establish whether language shift is taking place within the community and to what extent. A household survey was used to ascertain whether the home or heritage language was passed down from generation to generation in this intimate, family domain. While the Makhuwa believe that a child learns the home language through the mother’s breastmilk, the survey revealed that the socialisation and continuation of the language was limited. It also looked at whether children were passive recipients in the acquisition of the spoken language/s in the household or whether they played a role in the negotiation of the language chosen in the household. The findings revealed that in the pre-1994 period, the community and parents determined the language of choice in the community and the household. The children had to follow the rules decided by their parents and the Elders in the community. However, there was a shift in the period after 1994 with the children playing a role in the language choice of the household. Interviews were used to capture the historical background of the community and provide a “backdrop” for the research and discussion on maintenance and shift in the community. The interview method was used to provide a better understanding of why the case of the Makhuwa community in Durban is unique and adds to the discussion on minority immigrant communities and their situation in terms of cultural and language maintenance. The research found that the process of language shift had taken place over a long period of time in the community. The gradual shift that had taken place was part of the result of the iii contact situation between Emakhuwa and both minority and majority languages in the Kwa- Zulu Natal region. However, language shift had been more rapid in the last decade, causing alarm amongst the Elders in the community. The research looked at both cultural and language maintenance or shift in the Zanzibari community of Durban. The findings revealed that while language shift is taking place in the community, and even thought the English language is used more often in the household and cultural domain, the Makhuwa culture is maintained. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To Prof. Rajend Mesthrie I would like to thank you for your guidance, patience and understanding through this long and difficult journey. You have helped give me clarity on the objective of my work and contributed to my growth in academic writing. Your humility and wisdom will always be remembered. Thank you for making this dream a reality. I would like to thank the NRF for the SARCHI scholarship of Prof. Rajend Methrie (Migration and Language, Social Change, Grant number 64805) and making this study possible. Thank you to the University of Cape Town for the Lestrade Scholarship. To my friend and sister Moonde Kabinga, there are no words that can express my heartfelt gratitude for all that you have done to help me through. So, I would like to start with thank you and may god bless you with good health, happiness, peace and success in all that you do. To my soul sister Celeste Fortuin and family, thank you for sharing your home and lives with us. Celeste thank you for the late night chats, encouragement, inspiration and motivation. I am glad that we travelled this road together, because you understood the challenges of being a student, in full time employment, mother, and wife and knew just what to say at the right moment. I hope that I was able to reciprocate and be strong for you. Stephanie Rudwick, I am grateful to have you in my life. Thank you for the advice, guidance, encouragement and wisdom. You have played an important role in helping this project come to fruition. Dear Ingrid Hjaertaker. Thank you for always being there, knowing what to say and being my rock. To Lulu. Thank you for the support and holding my hand. We have walked this journey together, we have jumped hurdles together. I wish you only the best. v Liazzat Bonate and your guidance is highly appreciated. Thank you. Dr Katupha, Kinashukuri. Thank you for the hospitality, for opening your home to a stranger, your network and support during my stay in Mozambique. I sincerely hope that we can work together in the future. To Carmeliza, Margarida and Professor Carlos Manuel. Kinashukuri. Thank you for checking the Makhuwa texts for me. Your assistance, and guidance is highly appreciated. To Richard Bailey and Preben Kaarlsholm, thank you for sharing your knowledge and information about my community and Emakhuwa with me. To Alida and Faiza, thank you very much for all the assistance and support. I wish you both all the best. Michel Lafon, ngiyabonga mkhulu. I am grateful for all your help, wisdom and guidance. To Kristine, Julia, Irene and all my other friends I would like to thank you for the encouragement and support. Your friendship means a lot. To my family, especially my immediate family in Durban thank you for all the support throughout the years and for believing in me even when I stopped believing that this could be done. To uncle Ramadaan Suleman thank you for the ideas, inspiration and pressure. I express my gratitude to my in-laws for all the help, especially taking care of my daughters, when I needed the time to work. To my husband Peder Nernaes, you have been a pillar of strength and held my hand through the difficult times. It has not been easy. You were patient and understanding and for that I love and respect you even more. I dedicate this study to my ancestors and my children, who have been an inspiration. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... ii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... vii LIST OF MAPS....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF GRAPHS ............................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF PICTURES ............................................................................................................ xiii CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Language: Emakhuwa ................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Rationale and background of this study .................................................................... 12 1.4 Problems and Issues to be investigated ...................................................................... 14 1.5 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.6 Research questions ....................................................................................................... 16 1.7 Self Reflection: Motivation for the research .............................................................