Lecture 4: Words Words Words August 15, 2012 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Last Time Review Questions ‚ What are some of the types of phonological rules that we find in natural language? ‚ What does this phonological rule say? [+consonantal] Ñ [+voice] / [+voice] ‚ Would you expect to find a rule in natural language that affected [n] and [e] only? ‚ How is it that, in English [zb], is OK in [frIzbi] but is bad in [zbir]? § Why is [zb] OK in Italian like [zbalzare]? ‚ Why is it that the /n/ in ‘un’ will sometimes change the way it’s pronounced, as in [2mb@liv@b@l]? § What kind of rule is that? 2 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Last Time Phonology Homework Practice ‚ P.311 #5: Consider some German data § [x] is a velar fricative, [ç] is a palatal fricative [nIçt] “not” [ba:x] “Bach” [re:ç˜@n] “rake” [la:x˜@n] “to laugh” [Slçt] “bad” [kOxt] “cooks” [ri:ç˜@n] “to smell” [fErsu:x˜@n] “to try” [h˜aImlIç] “sly” [ho:x] “high” [rEçts] “rightward” [SlUxt] “canyon” [kri:ç˜@n] “to crawl” [fErflUxt] “accursed” a. Are [x] and [ç] allophones of the same phoneme, or is each an allophone of a separate phoneme? Give your reasons. b. If you conclude that they are allophones of one phoneme, state the rule that can derive the phonetic allophones. 3 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Today Questions for Today ‚ What are morphemes? § Pairings of sound and meaning that are indivisible ‚ What kinds of morphological units do we find? § Roots/stems, affixes § bound and free morphemes § inflectional and derivational morphemes ‚ What do we do with our morphological knowledge? § segment and categorize § build words out of pieces of words, using rules 5 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Today Questions for Today ‚ What determines the way we pronounce a morpheme? § free variation, nearby morphemes, phonology ‚ What underlies the system of building words? § recursive rules and binary, hierarchical, endocentric structure ‚ How do we account for ambuiguity in words? § binary structure! 6 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Wrapping Up Phonology Multiple Rules ‚ Sometimes a single word can be subjected to multiple rules § Consider the /aI/Ñ[2I] rule (Canadian Raising) and the Flapping Rule ‚ /aI/ Ñ [2I] / -voiced “ ‰ +alveo. -cons. ‚ »-cont. fiÑ R / V »+syllabicfi –-nasal fl –-stress fl § Now consider the following data: ‘ride-able’ [raIR2b@l] ‘write-able’ [r2IR2b@l] ‘biding’ [baIRIN] ‘biting’ [b2IRIN] ‘insider’ [InsaIR@r] ‘inciter’ [Ins2IR@r] § Does it matter which rule is applied first? ‚ Let’s write out the derivations with both orders for ‘ride-able’ and ‘write-able’ 8 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Wrapping Up Phonology Multiple Rules ‚ Which derivation produces the appropriate results of ‘ride-able’ as [raIR2b@l] & ‘write-able’ as [r2IR2b@l]? UR /raId2b@l/ /raIt2b@l/ Flapping: raIR2b@l raIR2b@l Canadian Raising: — — SR [raIR2b@l] [raIR2b@l] UR /raId2b@l/ /raIt2b@l/ Canadian Raising: — r2It2b@l Flapping: raIR2b@l r2IR2b@l SR [raIR2b@l] [r2IR2b@l] ‚ Rule-ordering matters! 9 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology What is Morphology? ‚ Words are formed from smaller meaningful units called morphemes § Examples of Morphemes: love, -able, un-, super- § Words: love, lovable, unlovable, superlovable ‚ Morphology is... § (as a component of grammar) ...the system of word formation ‚ In other words: How to make words § (as a field of study) ...the study of word formation in language 11 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology What are Morphemes? ‚ Let’s define morphemes more clearly § Morpheme: A pairing of sound/form and meaning, which doesn’t have meaningful subparts § Another way: A linguistic sign, which doesn’t have meaningful subparts ‚ Let’s look at some words: § retry; relearn; redo; replay; revive; reset; relive ‚ All of these words share a chunk of sounds ([ri]) and a chunk of meaning (something like ‘again’) § How do we explain this? Is it just an accident? ‚ No! [/ri/] is a sound sequence paired with a meaning ‚ This is just like a word – but it is not a word ‚ It attaches to something, adds some sounds and meaning, and makes a word 12 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology What are Morphemes? ‚ Some other examples § [kanst@ntin]: a sequences sound that means something ‚ This is a single morpheme – a pretty big one! § [siIN]: a sequence of sound that means something ‚ This is not a morpheme – it is a sequence of two morphemes! ‚ Practice: What are the syllables in the word [kanst@ntin]? § What relationship is there between syllable structure and morphological structure? § None: some morphemes are syllables, some are smaller, some are bigger 13 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Morphemes ‚ Notice that “re-”, unlike most of the verbs it combines with, cannot be used on its own: § ˚ I did it re. § I did it again. ‚ This is because “re-” is a bound morpheme § Bound morphemes are never words by themselves § Instead, they need to form words by combining with other morphemes ‚ On the other hand, ‘again’ can be used on its own, because it is a free morpheme § Free morphemes can be entire words by themselves § Sometimes they combine with other morphemes, but they need not 14 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Morphemes ‚ Notice that, in the case of a word like “revive”, “vive” is a verb that cannot be used on its own § We see it in several words: e.g., “survive”, “vivacious”, “convivial”, etc. ‚ In these examples, “vive” shows up as the same basic sound sequence and basic shared meaning in all environments (something about living), and therefore it must be a morpheme § Notice! A words like “revive” is formed by two bound morphemes ‚ Not all words have a free-morpheme component 15 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Morphemes ‚ Morphemes can also be divided up into two other groups: affixes and roots § Affixes are bound morphemes that can attach onto a morpheme/word ‚ Affixes have different names depending on where they attach when combinding with the morpheme/word § Roots are the indivisible core of a word to which affixes attach ‚ Roots are usually free morphemes (though not always) 16 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Roots, Stems, Bases and Words ‚ A base is the term for either a root or a stem § A root is the core of any word ‚ They generally carry the most meaning ‚ What do you think the root is in ‘unstylistically’? ‚ Any language has far more roots than affixes § A stem is a derived form that hosts the root and at least one other morpheme ‚ Morphologically speaking, a word word can be a root or a combination of morphemes (stem) (stem) (affix) root (affix) 17 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Roots, Stems, Bases and Words ‚ Remember: just because it’s a root doesn’t mean it can function as a word by itself ‚ Bound Roots: Morphological roots that can’t stand as words by themselves § Frequently, bound roots in English come from Latin ‚ -mit: transmit, commit, submit ‚ -ceive: receive, perceive, deceive § But not always: ‚ overwhelm, *whelm ‚ nonchalant, *chalant ‚ cranberry, *cran 18 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Affixes ‚ Prefixes precede the base to which they attach; these are very common § un+lock, pre+paid, post+date, co+sign, non+empty ‚ Suffixes follow the base to which they attach; these are very common § lock+ed, pay+ment, dat+ing, sign+ee, empty+ish 19 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Affixes ‚ Infixes are inserted in the middle of a single morpheme, unlike other affixes § Khmer: /l + b + 1@n/ ‚ /l1@n/ means ‘fast’, adding the /b/ infix makes it a noun (‘speed’) § English: ‚ str + itheg +ong (“gibberish”languagegame) ‚ abso + friggin’ + lutely (expletive infixation) ‚ saxo + ma +phone (HomericInfixation,Yu2004) § Typically, infixes are sensitive to phonological structure ‚ Khmer’s /b/ and English’s gibberish infix are inserted after the onset of the first syllable ‚ The expletive infixes come before the stressed syllable ‚ Homeric -ma- comes after the first foot (group of two syllables) 20 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Kinds of Affixes ‚ Circumfixes surround the base to which they attach § English: em + bold + en ‚ *bold + en, *em + bold § Hungarian: legnagyobb /lEg + naéo + b/ ‚ ‘nagy’ means ‘big’, adding ‘leg-...-bb’ changes it to mean ‘biggest’ § Kabyle: /T + isli + T/ ‚ /isli/ means ‘groom’, adding /T+...+T/ changes it to mean ‘bride’ 21 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Derivational and Inflectional Affixes Derivational Inflectional ‚ Plays a lexical ‚ Plays only a (meaningful) role grammatical role § re-run vs. run § runn-ing vs. run ‚ Might change base’s ‚ Does not change base’s category category § runn-er vs. run § run-s vs. run ‚ Tends to not be required ‚ Is usually required by by grammatical rules grammatical rules § They’re (re-)running it. § He runs it. § ˚ He run it. 22 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Derivational and Inflectional Affixes Derivational Inflectional ‚ Derivational suffixes ‚ Inflectional suffixes precede inflectional follow derivational suffixes suffixes § coloni-al-iz-ation-ist-s § re-volu-tion-iz-er-s ‚ Don’t have to be ‚ The most productive productive affixes § unhappy vs. *unsad § running, jumping, friending, texting, etc. 23 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Inflectional Affixes ‚ English only has a 8... and they’re all suffixes! ‚ Verbal Inflectional Morphemes: § –s 3SG Present Tense ‚ I dance. He dances. § –ed Past Tense ‚ I dance. I danced. § –ing Progressive Participle ‚ I dance. I am dancing. § –en Past/Passive Participle ‚ I eat. I have eaten. 24 Lecture 4: Words Words Words Morphology Inflectional Affixes ‚ Nominal Inflectional Morphemes: § –s Plural ‚ My cat. My cats. § ’s Possesssive