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The Linguistic Norms of Hong Kong English in Computer-mediated Communication Wing Kin Vinton Poon A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Linguistics and English Language, School of Philosophy, Psychology, and Language Sciences, The University of Edinburgh 2010 Abstract Hong Kong is widely known as a bilingual city. In addition to the locally spoken Cantonese, the vast majority of Hong Kong Chinese people are also able to speak English, the ex-colonial and the international language which has played an important role in the community since the colony was founded. This linguistic situation has given rise to a local variety of English. Recognising the distinct form and function of this variety, scholars (e.g. Bolton 2002, Joseph 2004: 132-161) have argued that the linguistic features in the English spoken by Hong Kong people should be identified as Hong Kong English (HKE). Observing that certain Hong Kong English features specific to computer-mediated communication (CMC) have been developed through communication among bilingual Hong Kong Chinese on the internet, I believe that Hong Kong English in CMC should be seen as a distinct variety. To support my argument, I have, in this thesis, re-examined the notion of linguistic variety. This in turn has required an investigation into the nature of the linguistic norms that define a ‗systematically different‘ form of language. I begin my study by looking at the sociolinguistics of Hong Kong. The distribution of the three main languages – Cantonese, English, and Putonghua – is examined, and Cantonese-English code-mixing is discussed. The focus then turns to the notion of Hong Kong English, and its linguistic features are analysed. Then, the nature of computer-mediated communication is explored. I look at how this context has affected the use of language in general, and HKE specifically. The distinctive HKE features that can only be seen in CMC are examined. I show that Hong Kong English in computer-mediated communication (CHKE) is formally different from HKE in other written contexts. In order to argue that CHKE is a variety of its own, I look at how various scholars define ‗variety‘ and similar notions such as ‗language‘, ‗dialect‘, ‗sociolect‘, and ‗register‘. Seeing that the concept of norms is essential in determining whether a variety is ‗systematically different‘, I explore the nature of social norms and linguistic norms. A model of norms is proposed, identifying three kinds of linguistic norms: formal norms, contextual norms and identity norms. I present the results of a survey I conducted that aims to elicit Hong Kong people‘s attitudes towards CHKE. Analysis of the data obtained from the survey shows that linguistic norms of CHKE have emerged. Not only is CHKE recognised by its users as a distinct variety, this variety also has an identity marking function that is not seen in other forms of written HKE. i Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is of my own composition, and that it contains no material previously submitted for the award of any other degree. The work reported in this thesis has been executed by myself, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text. Wing Kin Vinton Poon Edinburgh, January 2010 ii Acknowledgements This dissertation would never have been completed without the assistance and good will of a great many people. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor John E. Joseph. Throughout my pursuit of this degree, he has not only given me endless guidance and support academically, but also encouragement personally. From him, I have learned what a brilliant scholar with intelligence, wit, and integrity should be like. He has been patient, forgiving and kind to me, a student who is slow to learn. No words can express my gratitude to this outstanding teacher and mentor. I would also like to thank the friends who have spent a good deal of time and effort editing and proofreading my writings – James Turner, Jennifer Harrison, Remco Knooihuizen, Mike Gill, Chin Macnamara, and Peto Henderson. Without these great people, my work could never have seen the light of day. Also, I would like to thank the friends who have given me personal support in various ways, without whom I would not have the confidence and courage to complete this project – Paul Yu, Queenie Tam, Susanna Chan, Christina Schmidt, Marleen Spaargaren, Kitty Ho, Shiying Hey, Michael Chan, Athena Au, and Jialuo Zhou. I am also thankful to my thesis examiners Mr. Robert Holland and Prof. James Miller for their useful comments and advices which have greatly enhanced the readability and the quality of the final version of the thesis. Lastly, and most importantly, I would like to thank my family, who are the backbone of my life. I thank my sister Yvonne Poon, from whom I have learned a different aspect of life. I thank my father Timothy Everest, who has given me immense encouragement. His sense of humour always comes to my rescue whenever I am stressed. Finally, I thank my mother, Rovana Lai, who has never failed to believe in me, even when I doubt myself. It is with her love that I can be the person I am today. iii Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... i Declaration ................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................iii List of tables, excerpts, and figures ........................................................................... 5 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 7 1.1 Background information ................................................................. 10 1.2 Structure of the thesis ...................................................................... 16 CHAPTER TWO: THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF HONG KONG AND HONG KONG ENGLISH ................................................................................................... 21 2.1 Background information ................................................................. 21 2.2 Languages in Hong Kong................................................................ 22 2.2.1 Cantonese ........................................................................................ 24 2.2.2 Putonghua ........................................................................................ 26 2.2.3 English ............................................................................................ 29 2.3 Functions of English in Hong Kong................................................ 33 2.3.1 English as a tool to success ............................................................. 33 2.3.2 English as a form of cultural capital ............................................... 34 2.3.3 English as a linguistic habitus of Hong Kong ................................. 35 2.3.4 English as an identity marker of the Hong Kong people ................ 36 2.4 The code-mixing phenomenon in Hong Kong ................................ 38 2.5 Hong Kong English ......................................................................... 48 2.5.1 The linguistic form of Hong Kong English .................................... 54 2.5.1.1 Phonology ....................................................................................... 54 2.5.1.2 Morphology ..................................................................................... 57 2.5.1.3 Syntax .............................................................................................. 59 2.5.2 The functions of Hong Kong English ............................................. 62 1 CHAPTER THREE: COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION AND CMC-HONG KONG ENGLISH ............................................................................ 65 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 65 3.2 Computer-mediated communication ............................................... 67 3.2.1 Electronic mail ................................................................................ 67 3.2.2 World-wide web .............................................................................. 69 3.2.3 Virtual worlds ................................................................................. 70 3.2.4 Asynchronous chatgroups ............................................................... 75 3.2.5 Synchronous chatgroups ................................................................. 79 3.2.6 Combination of internet-using