1 Investigating the Temporal Dynamics of Covert Visual Spatial Attention: Exploitative and Explorative Attentional Mechanisms Salvatore Simone Russo School of Psychology The University of Adelaide A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2020 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. 2 Abstract............................................................................................................................................. 4 Declaration ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................... 7 List of Publications............................................................................................................................ 8 List of Conference Presentations........................................................................................................ 9 CHAPTER 1: General Introduction ................................................................................................. 10 1.1 Attention................................................................................................................................ 11 1.2 Attention and Learning .......................................................................................................... 14 1.3 Attentional Learning Theories ................................................................................................ 17 1.3.1 Mackintosh.(1975) Model ............................................................................................... 18 1.3.2 Pearce-Hall (1980) Model ............................................................................................... 22 1.4 Time ...................................................................................................................................... 25 1.5 Electroencephalography ......................................................................................................... 32 1.6 General Aims and Chapter Summary ..................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 2: Exploring the Dot Probe Task and the N2pc .............................................................. 39 2.1. Experiment 1 ........................................................................................................................ 39 2.1.1. Method .......................................................................................................................... 41 2.1.2. Results ........................................................................................................................... 49 2.1.3. Discussion...................................................................................................................... 54 2.2. Experiment 2 ........................................................................................................................ 55 2.2.1. Method .......................................................................................................................... 55 2.2.2. Results ........................................................................................................................... 57 2.2.3. Discussion...................................................................................................................... 61 2.3. Experiment 3 ........................................................................................................................ 63 2.3.1. Method .......................................................................................................................... 63 2.3.2. Results ........................................................................................................................... 66 2.3.3. Discussion...................................................................................................................... 71 2.5. General Discussion ............................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER 3: Multiple SOAs .......................................................................................................... 76 3 3.1. Experiments 4 and 5.............................................................................................................. 78 3.1.1. Method .......................................................................................................................... 79 3.1.3. Discussion...................................................................................................................... 90 3.3. Experiment 6 ........................................................................................................................ 98 3.3.1. Method ........................................................................................................................ 103 3.3.2. Results ......................................................................................................................... 107 3.3.3. Discussion.................................................................................................................... 114 3.4. General Discussion ............................................................................................................. 116 CHAPTER 4: Automaticity and Learning ...................................................................................... 119 4.1. Experiment 7 ...................................................................................................................... 122 4.2.1. Method ........................................................................................................................ 123 4.2.2. Results ......................................................................................................................... 125 4.2.3. Discussion.................................................................................................................... 128 4.2. Experiment 8 ...................................................................................................................... 133 4.1.1. Method ........................................................................................................................ 134 4.1.2. Results ......................................................................................................................... 137 4.1.3. Discussion.................................................................................................................... 143 4.3. Experiment 9 ...................................................................................................................... 147 4.3.1. Method ........................................................................................................................ 148 4.3.2. Results ......................................................................................................................... 151 4.3.3. Discussion.................................................................................................................... 153 4.4. General Discussion ............................................................................................................. 156 CHAPTER 5: General Discussion ................................................................................................. 160 References .................................................................................................................................... 184 Appendix A: Latencies and probe locked ERPs at each SOA for Experiments 4 and 5 ................... 200 Appendix B: Latencies and probe locked ERPs at each SOA for Experiments 6 ............................. 207 Appendix C: Discussion of cue-locked N2pc ................................................................................. 215 Appendix D: Latencies, CS onset and probe locked ERPs at each SOA for Experiments 7 ............. 222 Appendix E: Latencies, CS onset and probe locked ERPs at each SOA for Experiment 8 ............... 231 Appendix F: Latencies, CS onset and probe locked ERPs at each SOA for Experiment 9 ............... 239 Appendix G: Attention Modulated Auto-Associator....................................................................... 247 4 Abstract This thesis explores how trial and error learning affects attentional processes. Previous research has shown that selective attention tends to be biased towards cues that accurately and consistently predict future events. Paying attention to predictive cues is adaptive because an animal can use the information that these cues convey to predict future events and change their behaviour accordingly. However, some research has shown that selective attention can be biased towards non-predictive, or uncertain, stimuli. Paying attention to non-predictive cues could also be adaptive because it could help establish the true nature of these currently uncertain stimuli. Although selective attention can be driven by both high and low levels of uncertainty, the factors that determine which driving force prevails are not fully understood. This thesis investigates whether time is one such factor. The experiments presented here involved training participants on a categorisation