The Bureau of International Information Programs of the U.S. Department of State publishes a monthly electronic journal under the eJournal USA logo. These journals U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE / FEBRuaRY 2010 examine major issues facing the United States and the VOLUME 15 / NUMBER 2 international community, as well as U.S. society, values, http://www.america.gov/publications/ejournalusa.html thought, and institutions. International Information Programs: One new journal is published monthly in English and is Coordinator Daniel Sreebny followed by versions in French, Portuguese, Russian, and Executive Editor Jonathan Margolis Spanish. Selected editions also appear in Arabic, Chinese, Creative Director Michael Jay Friedman and Persian. Each journal is catalogued by volume and number. Editor-in-Chief Richard W. Huckaby Managing Editor Bruce Odessey The opinions expressed in the journals do not necessarily Production Manager/Web Producer Janine Perry reflect the views or policies of the U.S. government. The Graphic Designer Sylvia Scott U.S. Department of State assumes no responsibility for the content and continued accessibility of Internet sites Copy Editor Rosalie Targonski to which the journals link; such responsibility resides Photo Editor Maggie Sliker solely with the publishers of those sites. Journal articles, Cover Designer Diane Woolverton photographs, and illustrations may be reproduced and Graph Designers Vincent Hughes translated outside the United States unless they carry Reference Specialist Martin Manning explicit copyright restrictions, in which case permission must be sought from the copyright holders noted in the journal. Front Cover: © Getty Images The Bureau of International Information Programs maintains current and back issues in several electronic formats at http://www.america.gov/publications/ejournalusa. html. Comments are welcome at your local U.S. Embassy or at the editorial offices: Editor, eJournal USA IIP/PUBJ SA-5, 1st Floor U.S. Department of State 2200 C Street, NW Washington, DC 20522-0501 United States of America E-mail: [email protected] eJOURNAL USA About This Issue “I state clearly and with conviction America’s commitment to seek the peace and security of a world without nuclear weapons. I’m not naive. This goal will not be reached quickly — perhaps not in my lifetime. It will take patience and persistence…” —U.S. President Barack Obama, April 5, 2009 n 1931, Albert Einstein described himself as “not only that the world may be safer with a few acknowledged a pacifist but a militant pacifist.” Eight years later nuclear weapons than with promises that all have been IEinstein wrote President Franklin D. Roosevelt that foresworn. Feature essays explore thoroughly the existing “it may be possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the obstacles to its large mass of uranium, by which extension. We review Obama vast amounts of power and large administration policy, and also quantities of new radium-like ele- how the issues look from the ments would be generated … it is Russian vantage point, and conceivable — though much less from the perspective of nations certain — that extremely power- that choose not to proliferate. ful bombs of this type may thus We outline past arms control be constructed.” Einstein warned efforts — some produced the president that Nazi Germany better results than others. We already had prohibited the export ask the question: Why did of uranium, and he suggested some nations build thousands that the U.S. government speed of nuclear weapons? And we up atomic research. profile a program that already Roosevelt launched the has eliminated some 15,000 Manhattan Project, the top secret nuclear warheads. U.S.-U.K.-Canada crash effort When a leading pacifist that produced the world’s first calls for an atomic bomb and atomic bomb. When it detonat- the man most responsible ed, on July 16, 1945, at Alamog- for producing it opposes ordo Test Range in New Mexico, its growing destructiveness, the project’s scientific director, we know that the issues are Robert Oppenheimer, recalled tangled. When the leader of the the words of the Bhagavad Gita: United States of America sets “Now I am become death, the a goal and in the next sentence destroyer of worlds.” Oppen- suggests it may not be fully heimer later would oppose, unsuccessfully, development of achieved in his lifetime, we know the issues are difficult. the still more fearsome hydrogen bomb. We hope readers of this eJournal come to appreciate just Speaking last year in Prague, President Barack Obama how difficult and, most importantly, leave us this month offered a U.S. commitment to seek a world without nuclear determined along with President Obama to build a safe and weapons. But he also acknowledged that the objective peaceful world, no matter how long it takes. might not be achieved in his lifetime. How that goal might be attained, and why getting there is so difficult, is the subject of this eJournal USA. —The Editors Our contributors approach the issue from every angle. Most agree with President Obama’s objective, although one, a former U.S. national security adviser, argues eJOURNAL USA 1 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE / FEBRuaRY 2010 / VOLUME 15 / NUMBER 2 http://www.america.gov/publications/ejournalusa.html A World Free of Nuclear Weapons THREAT AND PROMISE 17 Beyond Existing Treaties Rebe CCA JO HNS O N (UN ite D KI NGD O M ), EX E CU ti V E 4 Obama’s Commitment DI R E C to R , ACR O NYM INS tit U te F O R DI SARMAM E N T ELL E N O. TAUSCH E R , UND E R SE CR etARY O F ST A te DI PL O MACY F O R ARMS CO N T R O L AND IN te RNA tio NAL SE CUR it Y The 2010 review conference on nuclear weapons Other people have talked about achieving a world nonproliferation should start laying the groundwork without nuclear weapons. President Obama is trying for a treaty abolishing nuclear weapons. to make it happen. DISARMAMENT AttEMPTS PAST 6 The Transformation of U.S. Nuclear Policy 20 Successes and Failures JO S E PH CIRINCioNE, PR E S I D E N T , PL O UGHSHAR E S JE R E M I SUR I , PR O F E SS O R O F HI S to RY , UNIVERSitY FUND O F WI SC O NS I N -MAD I S O N President Obama faces plenty of obstacles, especially The 20th century had some successes and some cynicism. failures in arms control. 9 Playing Percentages UNITED STATES AND RUSSIA AN IN te RV ie W Wit H BR E N T SC O WCR O F T , FO RM E R U.S. NA tio NAL SE CUR it Y ADV I S E R 25 Why the Stockpiles? Zero nuclear weapons could make for an even more JO NA T HAN Ree D WI NKL E R , ASS O C I Ate PR O F E SS O R unstable world. O F HI S to RY , WR I GH T ST A te UNIVERSitY Maintaining huge and expensive nuclear warhead 13 Nonproliferation’s Contribution stockpiles was the cost of peace during the Cold War. Geo RG E PE RK O V I CH , DI R E C to R , AND Dee P ti CH O U be Y , DE PU T Y DI R E C to R , NUCL E AR 27 U.S.-Russia Balancing Act PO L I CY PR O GRAM , CARN E G ie END O WM E N T F O R DM it R I TR E N I N (RUSS I A ), DI R E C to R , CARN E G ie IN te RNA tio NAL PE AC E MO SC O W CE N te R Cooperation among the nuclear powers on Russian leaders publicly support the idea of a world preventing proliferation requires upholding the free of nuclear weapons but lack a clear strategy to bargain between disarmament and nonproliferation. advance this vision. 16 Fission, Fusion Nuclear weapons can achieve their destructive power in two different ways. eJOURNAL USA 2 29 Megatons to Megawatts 33 The Commitment of Non-Nuclear ANDR E W NE WMAN (AUS T RAL I A ), RE S E ARCH Weapon States ASS O C I Ate , HARVARD UNIVERSitY IRMA ARGÜ E LL O (ARG E N ti NA ), FO UND E R AND Thanks to the Megatons to Megawatts program, CHA I R , NO NPR O L I F E RA tio N F O R GL ob AL half of U.S. nuclear energy comes from dismantled SE CUR it Y FO UNDA tio N Russian nuclear warheads. All countries must learn that abolishing nuclear weapons will enhance the security of all PERSPECTIVES countries. 31 Young People to the Fore 35 By the Numbers JO HAN BE RG E NÄS (SW E D E N ), RE S E ARCH ASS O C I Ate , MO N te R E Y INS tit U te O F IN te RNA tio NAL ST UD ie S 36 Additional Resources Progress toward a world rid of nuclear weapons depends on the world’s young people. 32 A Safer World for All JAYAN T HA DHANAPALA (SR I LANKA ), PR E S I D E N T , PUGWASH CO NF E R E NC E S O N SC ie NC E AND WO RLD AFFA I RS A verifiable global agreement on eliminating nuclear weapons would make all of the world’s people safer equally. eJOURNAL USA 3 THR E A T AND PR O M I S E Obama’s Commitment Ellen O.