This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. ‘They can now digest strong meats:’ Two Decades of Expansion, Adaptation, Innovation, and Maturation on Barbados, 1680-1700. Ryan Dennis McGuinness PhD Thesis University of Edinburgh 2017 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7 PART I: HISTORIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 7 PART II: THE SOURCES ................................................................................................................... 24 PART III: THE DISSERTATION’S STRUCTURE .................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF LATE-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BARBADOS: CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT .....................................................45 CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF LATE-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BARBADOS: DEMOGRAPHICS AND DISEASE .........................................................................65 PART I: THE 1680 AND 1684 CENSUSES ....................................................................................... 66 PART II: DISEASE ON BARBADOS DURING THE 1680S AND 1690S ................................................ 91 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 113 CHAPTER 3: BARBADOS AND THE MOVEMENT OF UNFREE LABOR, 1660- 1720 ..................................................................................................................... 117 PART I: INDENTURED SERVITUDE DURING THE LATE-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY .......................... 121 PART II: THE BARBADIAN SLAVE TRADE ....................................................................................... 136 Section I: Barbados’ Place Within the Trade Compared to other Nations ..................... 136 Section II: A Yearly Breakdown of the Barbadian Slave Trade, 1680-1700 .................. 146 Section III: The Effects of the Slave Trade on Barbados’ Enslaved Population ............ 151 Section IV: The Unrecorded Interloping Trade ................................................................... 155 PART III: BARBADOS AND THE ANGLO-SPANISH SLAVE TRADE ................................................... 167 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 180 CHAPTER 4: BARBADIAN IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE, 1680-1700 ........... 185 PART I: CARIBBEAN MERCANTILISM AND THE NAVIGATION ACTS ................................................ 190 PART II: THE BARBADIAN ECONOMY: IMPORTED/EXPORTED GOODS, 1680-1688 .................... 196 PART III: THE IMPORTATION AND EXPORTATION OF GOODS, 1689-1697 ................................... 213 Section I: Collapse and Convoys ......................................................................................... 213 Section II: Securing Additional Supplies During the War .................................................. 236 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 245 CHAPTER 5: THE BARBADIANS’ QUEST FOR ENERGY IN THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY CARIBBEAN, 1680-1700 ........................................ 257 PART I: THE ORIGINS OF CALORIC ENERGY ON BARBADOS ....................................................... 261 PART II: IMPORTING ANIMAL ENERGY .......................................................................................... 293 PART III: THE ISLANDERS’ BATTLE AGAINST DECLINING SOIL FERTILITY, 1680-1700 ............... 304 PART IV: IMPORTING FUELWOOD INTO BARBADOS ..................................................................... 313 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 327 CONCLUSION: A LOOK AHEAD TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ................ 333 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 353 MANUSCRIPT SOURCES ................................................................................................................ 353 PRINTED/INTERNET PRIMARY SOURCES ...................................................................................... 356 SECONDARY SOURCE MATERIAL .................................................................................................. 359 3 4 LIST OF CHARTS, GRAPHS, MAPS, PICTURES, AND TABLES INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 1: AN OVERVIEW OF LATE-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BARBADOS: CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENT .....................................................45 MAP 1.1: EASTERN COAST AND THE SCOTLAND DISTRICT, 1685 ................................................. 49 GRAPH 1.1: DAYS AND INTENSITY OF RAIN, 18 APRIL TO 24 AUGUST, 1680 ............................... 51 GRAPH 1.2: STRENGTH OF WIND BETWEEN 18 APRIL AND 24 AUGUST, 1680 ............................. 52 TABLE 1.1: CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, ENGLISH CARIBBEAN, 1680-1700 ........................................ 56 CHAPTER 2: AN OVERVIEW OF LATE-SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BARBADOS: DEMOGRAPHICS AND DISEASE .........................................................................65 MAP 2.1: THE ISLAND OF BARBADOS: PARISHES AND TOWNS ..................................................... 67 TABLE 2.1: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION COMPILED FROM THE 1680 CENSUS .......................... 68 MAP 2.2: PLANTATIONS IN ST. MICHAEL’S, ST. GEORGE’S, CHRIST CHURCH PARISHES ............ 69 MAP 2.3: BRIDGETOWN IN 1722 ..................................................................................................... 71 MAP 2.4: ST. JAMES’ AND ST. THOMAS’ PARISHES, LEA MAP, 1685 ............................................ 74 MAP 2.5: ST. LUCY’S PARISH.......................................................................................................... 76 TABLE 2.2: LANDHOLDING PATTERNS, 100+ ACRES (1680) ......................................................... 77 TABLE 2.3: LANDHOLDING PATTERNS, 10-99 ACRES, (1680) ....................................................... 82 TABLE 2.4: LANDHOLDING PATTERNS, 1-9 ACRES (1680) ............................................................ 83 TABLE 2.5: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION COMPILED FROM THE CENSUS OF 1684 ..................... 86 TABLE 2.6: THE FREE WHITE POPULATION IN BARBADOS, 1655-1748 ........................................ 89 TABLE 2.7: REPORTS OF OUTBREAKS OF DISEASE IN BARBADOS, 1684-1700 ........................... 93 TABLE 2.8: MORTALITY STATISTICS FOR FIVE PARISHES IN BARBADOS, 1680-1700 ................. 99 TABLE 2.9: MORTALITY FIGURES DIVIDED INTO FIVE YEAR PERIODS, 1681-1700 .................... 101 TABLE 2.10: MORTALITY FIGURES FOR ST. JAMES’ WITH CAUSES OF DEATH, 1693-1701 ....... 103 TABLE 2.11: PRE-1834 MEDICINAL PLANTS USED IN BARBADOS ............................................... 109 CHAPTER 3: BARBADOS AND THE MOVEMENT OF UNFREE LABOR, 1660- 1720 ..................................................................................................................... 117 TABLE 3.1: COLONIAL DESTINATIONS OF SERVANTS, 1656-1720 ............................................. 122 TABLE 3.2: INDENTURED SERVANTS IN THE NAVAL OFFICE RETURNS, 1680-1700 ................... 127 GRAPH 3.1: ORIGIN OF INDENTURED SERVANTS, NAVAL OFFICE RETURNS, 1680-1700 ......... 128 GRAPH 3.2: THE WHITE SERVANT POPULATION AT 2% MORTALITY RATE, 1684-1688 ............ 135 TABLE 3.3: THE SLAVE TRADE TO BARBADOS, 1664-1669 ........................................................ 139 TABLE 3.4: THE SLAVE TRADE TO BARBADOS, 1674-1679 ........................................................ 142 TABLE 3.5: THE CARIBBEAN SLAVE TRADE, 1680-1700 ............................................................. 145 TABLE 3.6: THE IMPORTATION OF ENSLAVED AFRICANS INTO BARBADOS, 1680-1700 ............. 147 GRAPH 3.3: PRICES OF ENSLAVED VS. PRICES OF SUGAR ON BARBADOS, 1684-1700 ............ 149 TABLE 3.7: SLAVE POPULATION ADJUSTED FOR MORTALITY RATES, 1680-1700 ..................... 152 TABLE 3.8: THE SLAVE TRADE IN BARBADOS, 1701-1720.......................................................... 163 CHART 3.1: THE ORIGINS OF PRIVATE TRADERS, 1708-1720 .................................................... 164 5 CHAPTER 4: BARBADIAN IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE, 1680-1700 ........... 185 TABLE 4.1: QUANTITY OF TRADE IN BARBADOS, 1682-1688 .......................................................198 GRAPH 4.1: ORIGIN FOR SHIPS AND TONNAGE