Investigating Cognitive and Persuasive Effects of 360-degree Virtual Reality Community News Narratives on Memory Performance, Presence, Perception of Credibility, and Attitude Change A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy D. Aaron Atkins May 2020 © 2020 D. Aaron Atkins. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Investigating Cognitive and Persuasive Effects of 360-degree Virtual Reality Community News Narratives on Memory Performance, Presence, Perception of Credibility, and Attitude Change by D. AARON ATKINS has been approved for the E.W. Scripps School of Journalism and the Scripps College of Communication by Jatin Srivastava Associate Professor of Journalism Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii Abstract ATKINS, D. AARON, Ph.D., May 2020, Mass Communication Investigating Cognitive and Persuasive Effects of 360-degree Virtual Reality Community News Narratives on Memory Performance, Presence, Perception of Credibility, and Attitude Change Director of Dissertation: Jatin Srivastava 360-degree video and virtual reality news content is becoming more and more mainstream, yet research into its effects thus far have been limited, with early research focusing its attention on presence and empathy. This research expands our understanding of how 360VR news content affects cognition. Two experiments placing the user into a community-oriented news experience test memory performance, attention allocation, activation of spatial presence mechanisms, and the effects of sense of community on those mechanisms. Further, this study explores the persuasive power of politically- charged community news stories by incorporating attitude change measures. Findings of the first experiment indicate the presence of a visual focal point attracts attention to the story to the detriment of attention to the environment. Findings in the second experiment indicate both attitude change and attitude polarization occurred post-treatment. Sense of community was found to be a significant predictor of memory performance, activation of spatial presence, and others. According to the LC4MP, SOC is a motivating factor, and an increase in SOC may lead to greater memory performance, higher levels of perception of credibility, and an increase in the effectiveness of persuasive messages in moderates. Findings will inform both future research and professional practice. iii Dedication To Rachel, Animal, and Ringo. iv Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge coffee. Again. And Dr. Jatin Srivastava, for his insight, support, ability to jump-start creativity and critical analysis, and for his profound knowledge of international street food; Dr. Hans Meyer for his insight into 360VR and community journalism; Dr. Kim Rios for her methodological expertise and helping me look at my data from different perspectives; and for Eric Williams and his thought experiments that helped me consider several production and application-based factors that influenced this study. Lastly, I also want to acknowledge everyone who contributed and helped me produce content, wrangle participants, run them through my lab experiments, and kept me (mostly) sane throughout this experience. You know who you are, and you are appreciated. v Table of Contents Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... v List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Virtual Reality and News .................................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Defining 360VR .............................................................................................. 11 VR and 360VR – What’s the Difference? .................................................................. 13 Chapter 3: The Presence or Absence of an On-screen Reporter ....................................... 18 Experiment 1 - Immersion, Presence, and Perception of Journalist Credibility ......... 18 Limited Capacity Model, Message Processing, and Memory Performance ............... 20 Immersion and Presence ............................................................................................. 23 Sense of Community. .................................................................................................. 26 The Perception of Journalist Credibility ..................................................................... 28 Chapter 4: Experiment 1 – Execution, Analysis, Results ................................................. 31 Experiment 1 – Procedure. .......................................................................................... 31 Experiment 1 – Stimulus. ............................................................................................ 33 Experiment 1 - Analysis ............................................................................................. 36 Controls ................................................................................................................. 36 Scale variables ...................................................................................................... 37 Memory performance............................................................................................ 37 Findings and Results ................................................................................................... 39 Gender, Political Ideology, Familiarity Controls ........................................................ 45 Chapter 5: Experiment 1 – Discussion.............................................................................. 48 Memory Performance ................................................................................................. 50 Spatial Presence .......................................................................................................... 55 Journalist Credibility ................................................................................................... 56 Sense of Community ................................................................................................... 57 Anecdotal Evidence .................................................................................................... 59 vi Experiment 1 - Conclusion ......................................................................................... 62 Chapter 6: Experiment 2 ................................................................................................... 64 The Effect of Message Type on Memory, Attitude, and Counterargument ............... 64 Political Ideology, Media, and Counterargument ....................................................... 65 Chapter 7: Experiment 2 - Execution, Analysis, Results .................................................. 70 Experiment 2 - Procedure ........................................................................................... 72 Experiment 2 - Stimulus ............................................................................................. 74 Experiment 2 - Analysis.............................................................................................. 78 Controls ................................................................................................................. 78 Scale variables ...................................................................................................... 79 Memory performance............................................................................................ 79 Counterargument and attitude change .................................................................. 81 Findings and Results ................................................................................................... 82 Post Hoc Tests............................................................................................................. 94 Chapter 8: Experiment 2 - Discussion .............................................................................. 97 Political Messages, Participant Ideology, and Memory Performance ...................... 103 Attitude Change ........................................................................................................ 105 Spatial Presence and Journalist Credibility ............................................................... 109 Sense of Community ................................................................................................. 111 Counterargument....................................................................................................... 111 Anecdotal Evidence .................................................................................................. 112 Experiment 2 - Conclusion ....................................................................................... 115 Chapter 9: General Discussion.......................................................................................