UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI SOCIOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPRETING AT THE INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL FOR THE FAR EAST (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda ISBN:978-84-691-0208-4/DL:T.2198-2007 Sociopolitical Aspects of Interpreting at the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda Universitat Rovira i Virgili Monterey Institute of International Studies A dissertation for the award of Doctor of Philosophy PhD program in Translation and Intercultural Studies Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain Supervisors: Professor Franz Pöchhacker, University of Vienna Professor Miriam Shlesinger, Bar Ilan University 2007 UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI SOCIOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPRETING AT THE INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL FOR THE FAR EAST (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda ISBN:978-84-691-0208-4/DL:T.2198-2007 UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI SOCIOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPRETING AT THE INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL FOR THE FAR EAST (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda ISBN:978-84-691-0208-4/DL:T.2198-2007 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ i Abstract.............................................................................................................................. ii Definitions and notes on Japanese texts......................................................................... iii Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1 1. Literature review .......................................................................................................... 6 1.1. Interpreters in historical events................................................................................ 6 1.1.1. Interpreters throughout history......................................................................... 7 1.1.2. The Nuremberg Trial (Gaiba 1998)................................................................ 10 1.1.3. The IMTFE and its interpreters ...................................................................... 13 1.1.4. Tokyo Saiban no Tsuyaku Kenkyu (Watanabe 1998) ..................................... 15 1.2. Interpreters’ behavior in the courtroom................................................................. 17 1.2.1. The Bilingual Courtroom (Berk-Seligson 1990/2002).................................... 18 1.2.2. The Discourse of Court Interpreting (Hale 2004) .......................................... 20 1.2.3. Institutional constraints and interpreter latitude............................................ 23 1.2.4. Norm-based approach .................................................................................... 24 2. Theoretical Framework.............................................................................................. 26 2.1. Sociocultural approach .......................................................................................... 26 2.2. Concepts in sociopolitical aspects of interpreting ................................................. 30 2.2.1. Trust, power and control................................................................................. 30 2.2.2. Negotiated norms............................................................................................ 32 2.2.3. “Heteronomous” and “autonomous” interpreters......................................... 35 3. Research methodology................................................................................................ 39 3.1. Historical and archival study ................................................................................. 39 3.2. Case study.............................................................................................................. 41 4. Interpreting at the IMTFE......................................................................................... 47 4.1. The IMTFE ............................................................................................................ 47 4.2. Languages .............................................................................................................. 51 4.3. Recruitment of interpreters .................................................................................... 56 4.4. Interpreting system ................................................................................................ 58 4.5. Translators and translation disputes....................................................................... 64 4.6. Profiles of some linguists....................................................................................... 69 4.6.1. Interpreters ..................................................................................................... 69 UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI SOCIOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPRETING AT THE INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL FOR THE FAR EAST (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda ISBN:978-84-691-0208-4/DL:T.2198-2007 4.6.2. Monitors.......................................................................................................... 73 4.6.3. Language Arbiter............................................................................................ 75 4.7. Effect of interpreting on the proceedings .............................................................. 77 5. Sociopolitical aspects of interpreting at the IMTFE................................................ 80 5.1. The interpreter, the monitor and the language arbiter ........................................... 80 5.1.1. The tribunal’s explanation of the Language Arbitration Board..................... 81 5.1.2. Military trials in Manila and Japanese interpreters at the IMTFE................ 81 5.1.3. Nisei monitors ................................................................................................. 83 5.1.4. Language arbiter ............................................................................................ 84 5.1.5. Summary ......................................................................................................... 86 5.2. The making of an interpreter user.......................................................................... 87 5.2.1. Changes in the court’s attitude....................................................................... 88 5.2.2. Toury’s natural/native translators and negotiated norms.............................. 91 5.2.3. Summary ......................................................................................................... 92 5.3 The complexity of the standing of Nisei linguists .................................................. 94 5.3.1. Japanese language schools run by the Army and the Navy............................ 94 5.3.2. Complex psychology of Nisei linguists ........................................................... 96 5.3.3. “Autonomous” or “heteronomous”? ........................................................... 100 5.3.4. Summary ....................................................................................................... 102 6. Behavior of the linguists........................................................................................... 103 6.1. Linguists who worked during Tojo’s testimony.................................................. 105 6.1.1. Monitors........................................................................................................ 107 6.1.2. Interpreters ................................................................................................... 108 6.2. The monitors’ behavior........................................................................................ 111 6.2.1. Error Corrections ......................................................................................... 112 6.2.2. Rephrasing .................................................................................................... 118 6.2.3. Direct interactions with the witness and the other court participants.......... 123 6.2.4. Other types of interjections........................................................................... 129 6.2.5. Different monitors, different behavior? ........................................................ 130 6.3. The interpreters’ behavior.................................................................................... 132 6.3.1. Directly responding to the witness and the court ......................................... 132 6.3.2. Recovering interrupted interpretation and interrupting to let the witness speak ................................................................................................................................. 133 6.3.3. Explaining to the witness .............................................................................. 135 6.3.5. Interpreters’ behavior with different monitors ............................................. 137 6.4. Language arbiter .................................................................................................. 139 6.5. Linguists’ behavior with different arbiters .......................................................... 141 6.6. The behavior of the linguists and their positions in the hierarchy....................... 148 6.6.1. Analysis of the behavior of the linguists ....................................................... 148 6.6.2. Linguists’ behavior and the power constellation.......................................... 156 UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI SOCIOPOLITICAL ASPECTS OF INTERPRETING AT THE INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL FOR THE FAR EAST (1946-1948) Kayoko Takeda