Global Concepts, Local Contexts __________________________________________________________________________________ A case study of international criminal justice policy transfer in violence reduction William Graham A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of Glasgow Caledonian University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2016 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my wife Christine. I could not have achieved all that I have without her love and support over the past 35 years. i Abstract Global Concepts, Local Contexts A case study of international criminal justice policy transfer in violence reduction Glasgow has long experienced the issue of gang-related violence, especially in the east end of the city, an area of high social deprivation and related problems. Faced with apparent failure to deal with the problems of violence, in 2008, the police in Glasgow, in partnership with other statutory agencies, engaged in a process of policy transfer of the Cincinnati Initiative to Reduce Violence (US CIRV). They formed a multi-agency strategy, the Community Initiative to Reduce Violence (Glasgow CIRV), in order to tackle violence by targeting gangs and gang members both collectively and individually, in an attempt to encourage them to change their lifestyle. Glasgow CIRV operated for a period of three years (June 2008-July 2011), with some success in reducing violence and weapon carrying offences, however, in contrast to US CIRV, which is still in operation, it failed to achieve long-term sustainability. This research is an in-depth case study of the policy transfer between US CIRV and Glasgow CIRV and was initially guided by the question; ‘to what extent could the apparent long-term failure of Glasgow CIRV be explained by the policy transfer process?’ The model of policy transfer developed by Dolowitz and Marsh (1996 and 2000) was used to provide the theoretical and empirical framework to analyse the processes, mechanisms, ii and outcomes of the transfer of CIRV from Cincinnati to Glasgow. The transfer process was found to be a direct copy of the US CIRV project by Glasgow CIRV at the outset, however; it quickly became apparent that this process changed to one of emulation, due to differences, including the local context and legal constraints. The model of policy transfer proved to be a useful analytical tool with which to frame the empirical approach used in this case study. However, the model was found to have some limitations in terms of understanding the outcome of the policy transfer process. These limitations, which include its descriptive, linear, and finite framework, do not allow for the conceptualisation of one of the main findings of this research, an instance of ‘back- flow of policy transfer’, which requires a more cyclical approach; nor for the critical theorisation of what happens after a policy has been transferred, where the model stops, but the process may continue. This thesis therefore, extends existing knowledge in the field of criminal justice policy transfer by proposing an extension to the model beyond its linear and finite scope, by showing that transfer can be cyclical in nature and not be restricted to ‘one-way traffic’, identifying what it does not encapsulate, and reinforcing the significance of the local contexts, which cannot fail to have an impact on such transfer processes. iii Contents Dedication ...................................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... ii Global Concepts, Local Contexts ....................................................................................................... ii Contents ......................................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. x List of Appendices .................................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ xii Declaration ................................................................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1 – Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 Glasgow and its Gangs ............................................................................................................................. 3 Cincinnati and its Gangs ......................................................................................................................... 5 Boston ............................................................................................................................................................... 7 Research Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................................. 8 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................................................... 8 Thesis Structure ....................................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2 – Gangs Research and Their Definitions ............................................................ 14 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 14 Defining ‘gangs’ ....................................................................................................................................... 15 Historical Perspectives on Gangs Research .............................................................................. 21 Research in the UK .................................................................................................................................. 26 Territoriality ............................................................................................................................................. 29 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................. 32 Chapter 3 - Policy Transfer: A Review of the Literature .................................................. 35 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 35 Early ‘Orthodox’ Policy Transfer Literature - Policy Diffusion, Convergence and Lesson-Drawing ....................................................................................................................................... 35 What is Policy Transfer? ...................................................................................................................... 39 I. Why and when do actors engage in policy transfer? ........................................................ 41 II. Who transfers policy? ...................................................................................................................... 45 iv III. What is transferred? ...................................................................................................................... 49 IV. From where are lessons drawn? .............................................................................................. 51 V. Degrees of Transfer .......................................................................................................................... 54 VI. When do actors engage in policy transfer and how does this affect the policy- making process? ...................................................................................................................................... 55 VII. What restricts policy transfer? ....................................................................................... 57 VIII.How can researchers begin demonstrating the occurrence of policy transfer? ........................................................................................................................................................................... 60 IX. How can policy transfer help our understanding of policy failure?62 Criticisms of Policy Transfer and Way Forward ..................................................................... 62 Policy Mobilities and Mutations ...................................................................................................... 65 Final Thoughts .......................................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 4 - Methodology .................................................................................................................... 71 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................