FROM FARMS TO FORESTS: THE MATERIAL LIFE OF AN APPALACHIAN LANDSCAPE By Jodi A. Barnes Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Anthropology Chair: Dan Hicks Date 2008 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 Afv1.ERICAN UN!VcRSITY UBRJ\!~Y C\ 32 ~ UMI Number: 3340554 Copyright 2008 by Barnes, Jodi A. All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3340554 Copyright 2009 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 E. Eisenhower Parkway PO Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 481 06-1346 COPYRIGHT by Jodi A. Barnes 2008 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED FROM FARMS TO FORESTS: THE MATERIAL LIFE OF AN APPALACHIAN LANDSCAPE BY Jodi A. Barnes ABSTRACT The landscape provides a lens to examine how struggles over the natural environment both create and express racial and classed ideologies and stereotypes in Appalachia over time. By tracing the material changes to a mountain landscape from farm to forest to a place ofrecreation as the Appalachian Trail (AT), I rewrite the history of Appalachia, particularly the stereotypes about white poverty and pristine nature. I take the present as a starting point and move back and forth in time (from 1800 to the present) to consider how power relations are materially constituted in the landscape. I 'tack' together documentary, oral historical, and archaeological data to examine the material lives of three individuals, Jesse Richeson, a white plantation owner, Moses Richeson, a mixed-race enslaved laborer and a landowner, and Eli Hughes, a tenant farmer, to understand how the history of struggles over land and labor shaped classed relations and the social construction of race. This research is about slavery, tenancy, displacement and the Appalachian Trail; it is also about social relations and the materiality and historicity of a place. Archaeology, with its focus on time and materiality, contributes to the study 11 11l of the landscape, specifically a section of the Appalachian Trail, because it is a place whose creation is remembered and whose form and character we continue to influence in our everyday lives. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The process of research and writing this dissertation was like a hike along the Appalachian Trail (AT) with its ups and downs, rocky terrain, and beautiful scenic views. When I started the Ph.D. program at American University, I, nor my adviser Dr. Joan Gero, ever imagined that I would write my dissertation on a section of the Appalachian Trail. This "hike" would not have been possible without the guidance and support of many people along the way. Joan Gero's support and guidance throughout this research was invaluable. Dr. Gero's work with the World Archaeological Congress and commitment to ethics in archaeology inspired me to conduct community-based research that engaged issues that mattered. She taught me that the past is political and that as an archaeologist I have a responsibility to the people with stakes in the past, to my students as well as the research. Joan is a mentor and a friend and I am honored to have had the opportunity to work with her. I'd also like to thank Dr. Brett Williams. Dt. Williams inspired me to think about race, class and environmental justice. I would not have completed this dissertation without the long walks through Rock Creek Park where she provided positive reinforcement as we talked through ideas about race and the environment. I met Dr. Dan Hicks at the Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory conference in Bristol in 2007. Dr. Hicks encouraged me to think about the recent past IV v and the mutual histories of people in the past and people in the present. He helped me think about the connections between the Appalachian landscape's present and past. As a committee, Dr. Gero, Dr. Williams and Dr. Hicks brought varying perspectives that helped shape this dissertation, but of course any mistakes are my own. This research was supported by the Harvey and Sarah Moore A ward, awarded by the Department of Anthropology, American University, Washington, DC, the Andrew W. Mellon Research Fellowship, awarded by the Virginia Historical Society, Richmond, VA, the Bell Fellowship, awarded by the Forest History Society, Durham, NC Forest History Society, a number of Mellon Research Grants, awarded by the College of Arts and Sciences at American University, Washington, DC, and the Sigma Xi Grants-in-Aid, awarded by Sigma Xi, a scientific research society. An internship with Appalachian Trail Conservancy changed the course of my doctoral studies. The internship led to an incredible opportunity to do archaeology while hiking the AT, to conduct research about race, class and the environment, and to involve local communities in an archaeological project. This project would not have happened without the support of Don Owen, Pam Underhill and the Appalachian Trail Park Office. Don Owen showed me that the AT was about people and encouraged me to think about the connections between the Appalachian Trail and Appalachia as a region. Members of the Natural Bridge Appalachian Trail Club, particularly Dave Benavitch, were especially helpful. Dave Benavitch introduced me to the section of the Appalachian Trail along Brown Mountain Creek with his oral history with Taft Hughes and his great tour of the sites. I learned so much about the history of the area and the history of the AT from Trail Club members and hikers. Without them, this research would not have been possible. vi I'd also like to thank the archaeologists from the George Washington and Jefferson National Forest, particularly Mike Barber and George Tolley. George Tolley's research on Long Mountain was invaluable. I was fortunate to have the opportunity to meet a number of descendants living in the area, Georgia Barksdale, Dora Hughes, Philip Davis, and Mr. Richeson. Thanks to Bob Fener and Dave Benavitch for helping me make contacts in the community. I am grateful for the time they dedicated to this project and all of the stories they told me. Bob Fener went above and beyond to help with this project. He posted fliers, stored equipment, provided first aid and transportation, acted as a forest tour guide and much more. During this research, I did not own a car. Car-less-ness was a challenge for archaeological research; therefore, many people helped by arranging car pools, visiting the site with me or letting me use their cars. I'd like to thank Keith Kendrick and his family, Joe Dent, Lisa H. Robbins, Kelly Ernst, Madeline Konz, Anna Letona, and Bob Fener for letting me continue to live car-less and environmentally conscious while conducting archaeological field work. Numerous individuals provided encouragement and assistance while I was conducting research and writing. I'd like to thank Joe Dent, Lisa Holly Robbins, Sabihya Prince, Rachel Watkins, Dolores Koenig and Bill Leap. Dissertation writing can be a lonely process. I was fortunate to be involved with the A.B.D. Writing Group. Kelly Feltault, Michelle Carnes, Maria Amelia Viteri, Barbara Reese, Paula Massouh, and Adelaide Lusambili were so helpful in reading drafts of chapters. In addition, the Historical Archaeology Happy Hour (HAHH), particularly Dave Gadsby, Teresa Moyer, VII Matt Pal us, and Jolene Smith, were invaluable -- beer and archaeology. I also want to thank Mer Fraser, Dave Gadsby, Kelly Ernst, Micah Trapp, Seraphima Rombe-Shulman, and Becca Frisckorn for the informal, but animated discussions about anthropology and ways of thinking about the past as well as the present while I was a graduate student at American University. Chris Judge and Carl Steen offered me my first archaeology volunteer experience as an undergrad. They showed me how to work with communities and how important volunteers are to archaeological research. I am thankful for the many people dedicated time and energy into make this project happen, from thru hikers such as Glen Summers stopping for an afternoon of excavations to Mary Miles, Madeline Konz and Eliot Balasz who dedicated several weekends helping me excavate. Ollie Karelis, Jordan Knight, Justin Golash and Judith Smith, students during the 2005 field school, were indispensable. Special thanks to Lisa Holly Robbins for her role in the original planning and preliminary research in this project. Lisa's eye for detail and planning was vital to this project and her research on outbuildings -- particularly smokehouses and root cellars was invaluable. Finally, I'd like to thank my mom and dad for believing in me and supporting me through my "hike" through graduate school. This dissertation is dedicated to them. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................... .iv LIST OF TABLES ..............................................................................xii