CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY_, NORTHRIDGE COVERAGE OF ITPJ:.O-E'TEIOPIAN HAR, 1936-1941 1 ' BY FIVE WES'I·Eim NEWSPAPERS A thesis submitted in partial satisfa,::ti.on of the reqQirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Mass Corrmnmication by Yohannes Melaku The Thesis of Yohannes Melaku is approved: D,r. Ram Roy, Advisor __ _ California State University, Northridge DEDICATION To those who shared their love: Dr. Thomas Kilgore, Jr. & Mrs. Jeannetta Scott Kilgore iii. p • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have very little to claim for the success of this study. I owe it all to many people who have helped me in several areas. Some have given their advice and consent; more have put some work into it; and. many have shared my. worries. Among all., I would like to pay tribute to my committee members, and, particularly, to Dr. Tom Reilly, Associate Professor of Journalism at California State University, Northridge, who has gone out of ~is schedule many times to straighten out my work. He not only helped put this thesis together, but he has also shared some moments of consulting that can be vital to any foreign student. I am also grateful to Dr. Michael Emery, Professor of Journal­ i.sm, who has worked with such talent on my project and who was also wise in making the necessary changes without hurting my feelings. Dr. Ram Roy, Professor of Political Science, deserves great appreciation from me, not only as a committee member of this thesis, but also for the help he has provided through my college years at the University, going back to my undergraduate days. Many of those whom I have not mentioned by name will always have a special place in my heart. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION • • . iii ACKNOWLEDm'lENTS. .. iv ABSTRACT vi CHAPTER r. INTRODUCTION •• . 1 Background Pre-'t-Tar Period Newspapers Under Study Foreign Correspondents and the Ethiopian \olar Organiz.ation of the Thesis II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES . 22 Abyssinia and World Politics Abyssinia and the League of Nations "rhe Walwal Incident and the War of 1936 Five Years of Italian Rule: 1936-1941 III. THE OPENING INCIDENTS . 52 The Wa1wal Crisis of 1934 Incidents of 1935 The War of 1936 · Victory for Ethiopia: 1941 IV. Su~~JU~Y AND CONCLUSIONS 91 BIJ3J..,lOGHAPfff • • • • • • • • • • • • . 100 v ABSTRAa!' COVERAGE OF ITALO-ETHIOPIAN WAR, 1936-1941 BY Fri/E WESTERN NEWSPAPERS by Yohannes Melaku :ttJB.ster of Arts in Mass Communication August 1977 Although it was only one of many episodes in the crises lead- ing to the Second World War, the Italo-Ethiopian War of 1936-1941 has left a mark on world history. The purpose of this study is to analyze the coverage of selected newspapers in relation to this war from its beginning in 19311- to its end in 1941. The publications selected for study include: the New York ~imes, the Chicago Daily Tribune, the Christian Science Monitor, the Los Angeles Tim~, and the London Times. The newspapers were chosen as being representative of the region known as the "Western world", and also on the reputation of the newspapers and their perceived influence 11 on the tt~ie st • The analysis of the press coverage is divided into four differ- ~nt 1~riods in the war. The first section covers the smaller but critical incidents of 1934. The second section looks at follow-up coverage of the incidents of 1935, which built the bridge leading to th(; \lur of 1936. The third section presents an analysis of' the "real vi war" of 1936, which caused Ethiopia's defeat. The final section cap­ tures the highlights of the Ethiopian comeback and victory of 1941. The study found many factors. Among these are: (1) an increase in the space allotment that the newspapers provided as the war contin­ ued; (2) the pattern of continuity that the newspapers followed in pre­ senting the story; (3) generally favorable placement of stories; (4) use of illustrations such as maps, drawings and photos; (5) the use of lengthy stories to narrate the different events; and, (6) the positive impact on Haile Selassie's world image. There were also some ·weak points discovered in the coverage. Most of the newspapers did not provide sufficient background to their articles to make the news understandable to their readers. The use of language, particularly in one newspaper in the study, was not justifi­ able in terms o~ fairness. And, most of all, objectivity and balance in the reporting was considerably handicapped by government censorship and restrictions, language problems, transportation shortages, and inadequate communication systems. The study indicates, with all fac­ tors considered, that these papers did a reasonably fair job in bring­ ing the news surrounding this war to the "Western world". vU CHAP'l~R I INTRODUCTION The Italo-Abyssinian conflict of 1930-1945 was one of the major episodes among the string of events in the 1920's and 1930's which led to the Second World War. Several reasons account for its importance. First was the unique position that Ethiopia and Liberia held at the time in sustaining their freedom through the full history of the slave states of Africa. Another was the political involvement of the Big Powers of Europe at that period, particularly to the degree they remain­ ed silent about the crisis in Ethiopia. The seeds of further crisis could be seen in the indecision of the leading European democracies, France and England, to respond effectively to the Italian initiative. Third was the miscalculation by Italy in invading Ethiopia at a time when such an event might have raised a critical issue of world war. Finally, the war exposed the weakness that existed in the League of Nations, which was unable to solve the crisis or to even mediate it in an equitable fashion. This crisis of African history raised considerable controversy in the late 1930's among nations, various world publics, different races, and the leadingpowers. All of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was under foreign rule in 1934 when Italy threatened the integrity of Ethiopia. This overt act was not accepted without resist­ ance by the "never conquered" people of' Ethiopia. 1 2 In the 1930's, Ethiopia was at a strategic geographical spot in world politics, had an interesting history which in various ways was tied to ancient Arabian, European and Asian societies, and was the last remnant of' an important religious and cultl.lral center f'or A:f'rica. Thus, the aggression of Italy angered many Af'rican peoples who shared terres­ trial and cultural, as well as racial values, with Ethiopia. The aggression also threatened the balance of' power structure among- the Big Powers of' Europe, who were watching each other suspiciously during the rising tensions of' the 1930's' pre-W.W.II period. The motives of the Big Powers, such as France and Germany, were also a factor in this crisis. These countries bad deep feelings about the attack on Ethiopia by Italy, but they did not transform that feel­ ing into action in order to deter Italy's designs on Ethiopia. They were caught in a vicious circle of diplomacy with their Big Power ally, trying not to interfere with the status quo of' Europe, but also realiz­ ing that what Italy was doing was unwise. The power politics involve­ ment with Italy prevented them f'rom taking action, and they suffered the consequences by losing some reputation and prestige af'ter the def'eat of' Italy in 1941 in East Africa. Even ¥Tithout the crisis in Ethiopia, which lasted f'rom the mid- 1930's to the beginning of' the 1940's, the entire world w~s in deep tension during this decade. This was primarily due to the rising com­ petition in an arms race among most nations of' the world in preparation for a war they soon expected to start. The Big Powers, although align­ ed to various allies, were keeping an eye on each other in case one gained more power and tried to dominate the course of' Europe. Also, 3 many non-European nations, in their own way, were watching the Big Power developments in case they,attempted to threaten the sovereignty of other nations. A second reason that increased tensions was the rise of Fascism and Nazism to full power during these years. Obviously, this had plunged all nations, big and small, into deep concern. Although the creation and continued existence of the League of Nations was a major accomplishment following W.W.I, its weaknesses in performing according to its charter were already evident. By :failing to handle important incidents such as the one in i934 between Ethiopia and Italy, it paid the price o:f losing the :faith o:f its member states. Put simply, the power of the League, which was theoretically a combined power of 52 nai>ions, was tested and shown wanting by the action of one country--ItaJ.y. '1.1he Pre-War Period In order to provide background for this study, it is important to look briefly into the history of both nations involved in the war. In the far end of the eastern section of the African continent, at what is usually referred to as the horn of A~rica, the land o:f l Ethiopia rests just above the equator. Including Eritrea, which once was an Italian colony, the nation measures.450,000 square miles in 2 area. During the 1936-41 ¥;•ar, there v,rere 13,000,000 inbabitants in the Empire, including 6,000,000 Christians and 7,000,000 Moslems and 3 other groupings.