Institute of Education, University of London This is a thesis accepted for a Higher Degree at the Institute of Education, University of London. It is an unpublished document and the copyright is held by the author. The author has agreed to the distribution of his/her thesis through the Institute of Education Institutional Repository. All persons consulting the thesis must read and abide by the Copyright Declaration below. Copyright Declaration I recognise that the copyright of the above described thesis rests with the author and that no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author. Stuart Gardner Institutional Differences in 16-19 GCE Advanced Level Education in England Thesis submitted for the award of the degree of: Doctor of Philosophy Institute of Education University of London 2007 Abstract The primary focus of this thesis is on whether there are any significant differences in the experiences of young people aged 16-19 studying GCE Advanced Level which result from whether they attend a school sixth form, sixth form college or tertiary college in England. The study uses quantitative and qualitative data to consider whether there are differences in examination achievement by young people or in their perception of their wider educational experience. The study also uses qualitative data on the views of senior staff in those institutions and of policy makers. The study is original in three respects: young people in the three different types of institution completed an identical questionnaire, and were interviewed on the same basis; an original analysis of value-added data for tertiary colleges, separated from general further education colleges; and the research makes use of the researcher’s extensive access to, and involvement in, contemporaneous 14-19 policy development. The study shows that educational policy development in England is undertaken within a complex educational, economic and political environment, and provides an overview of 16-19 provision and policy in the home nations and some European countries, together with a consideration of tripartism in education in England – both its historical origins and development, and its likely future direction. The main conclusion from the study is that there is little difference in the value-added to the examination performance of young people resulting from the type of institution they attend. The study also suggests that the young people, regardless of the institution they attend, are generally positive about their experience; however, students in school sixth forms are less positive about a number of aspects of that experience. As the research progressed, there were strengthening Ministerial steers towards tertiary tripartism – a strengthening of the divisions between academic, vocational and occupational learning. Declaration and Word Count I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made, the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own. Word count (exclusive of appendix, list of references and bibliography): 79,490. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements 3 Chapter 1 Introduction 5 Introduction 6 The contribution of the study 10 The research question 15 The overall approach to the research 19 Chapter 2 Literature Review 22 Introduction 22 The school sixth form 38 The colleges 56 A home nation and European perspective 69 Conclusions 87 Chapter 3 “If I Pass do I get into University? ”: A History of Tertiary Tripartism 90 Introduction 91 1938-1968 92 1968-1985 95 1985-1998 100 1998-2006 104 Conclusions 115 Chapter 4 Methodology 118 Introduction 119 Educational research and policy-making 120 A theoretical framework for research 129 The choice of methods and tools 132 Ethical issues 154 Conclusions 161 Chapter 5 The Case Study Institutions 164 Introduction 165 The school sixth form 165 The colleges 170 Conclusions 179 1 Chapter 6 “It’s Alright ”: Institutional Interviews 181 Introduction 182 School interviews 183 College interviews 196 Conclusions 205 Chapter 7 “I Wanted to Pull Chicks ”: The Student Questionnaire 208 Introduction 209 Section 2 of the questionnaire 219 Sections 3 and 4 of the questionnaire 220 Section 5 of the questionnaire 228 Conclusions 231 Chapter 8 “Glossing up Clean Data ” Value-Added Analysis 235 Introduction 236 The value added by tertiary colleges 248 Conclusions 256 Chapter 9 “Fracturing that Polished Surface ”: Interviews with the Elite 258 Introduction 259 The interviews 261 Conclusions 271 Chapter 10 Conclusions and Recommendations for Further Study 273 Introduction 274 Conclusions 274 Recommendations for further study 278 Appendix 284 References and bibliography 289 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study would not have been possible without the generosity of a number of individuals and institutions. I am very grateful for the funding provided by the Economic and Social Research Council (award number R42200144221), and hope that this study is seen by the Council as adding to the understanding of educational provision in England; I am also very grateful to my employer, the Learning and Skills Council, for allowing me study leave – whenever I was able to take it. Colleagues at the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) were quick to make me aware of developments in the field of 16-19 education which they thought might be of interest, and invited me to a number of meetings in my capacity as a researcher, rather than in my employment role. I am particularly grateful for being allowed access by the DfES to primary data and for access to the DfES library which, whilst small, is focused on education and holds bound copies of back editions of the Times Educational Supplement and bound copies of the full Lords and Commons debates on Education Acts. Over the last five years, I have met and discussed 14-19 education with a wide range of individuals in a variety of settings, including: teachers and lecturers; officials in the Department and its agencies; and members of the academic community – I learnt a great deal from their wealth of experience. One of the many pleasant surprises over the last five years has been the response of the academic community to my work; I put this down primarily to the mere fact that a (quasi) civil servant was so willing to engage with the academic community on policy-making. I set out to discover what young people thought of their educational experience – I could not have done that without the support of students in schools and colleges in completing my questionnaire, and agreeing to be interviewed; I am also indebted to the teaching staff and the ‘elite’ who agreed to be interviewed. It has been very reassuring to know that the staff in the Knowledge Centre at the 3 Learning and Skills Council could be relied upon to produce any book or article I requested, however obscure or ancient, and usually within two or three days. I am grateful to those who have commented on, and suggested improvements to, individual chapters and on the full work. Any errors which remain are my responsibility only. Finally, I would not have thought of doing a doctorate (“people like me don’t do doctorates”) without the suggestion and encouragement of Professor Gary McCulloch. Gary was my tutor at Sheffield University from 1997, when I began a Master of Arts, and has been my supervisor throughout this research, first at Sheffield and latterly at the London University Institute of Education: he has an international reputation for his research on the history of education, and has guided me with enormous skill over the years. It is a privilege to have worked with Gary. 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 5 INTRODUCTION This study looks at the experiences of students studying General Certificate in Education (GCE) Advanced (A) or Advanced Supplementary (AS) Level courses in three types of educational institution in England at the start of the 21 st Century. These institutions are attended by around 40 per cent of young people aged 16-19, who undertake what is commonly referred to as “general” or “academic” study in school sixth forms, sixth form colleges or tertiary colleges. The study also examines the views of senior staff in those institutions, and of policy-makers with experience and responsibilities in this area. My interest in this topic was stimulated by comments in a pamphlet published to accompany a speech to the Association of Colleges on 21 November 2000 by the then Secretary of State for Education and Employment, David Blunkett. In that pamphlet, Blunkett said: In many colleges, standards are high. And in terms of achievement and inspection grades, sixth form colleges stand out. Many are truly excellent – among the best providers in the country. And while their successes derive in some measure from the qualifications of their intake, the statistics also show that in terms of value added, sixth form colleges offer very high standards (Blunkett, 2000a, p 8). This statement was taken by some as suggesting that not only did sixth form colleges provide high quality education, but also that their offer was better than other providers. I wondered what evidence there was for such an interpretation, and, as sixth form colleges cater primarily for 16-19 year olds studying full-time for the GCE Advanced Level, I decided to compare that provision with the other two main state- funded routes for 16 year olds wishing to study GCE Advanced Level – school sixth forms and tertiary colleges. 6 Education in England is compulsory for all young people up to the age of 16, and mostly undertaken in schools (parents/guardians may decide to educate their children at home, although the local education authority has a duty to ensure that such education is appropriate to the needs of young people; a small number of young people under the age of 16 are in custody, but still receive education and training).