ENVISIONING THE AEROPLANE: COMPARING THE SPECTRUM OF RESPONSES IN THE AMERICAN AND BRITISH ARMIES TO A TECHNOLOGY WITHOUT PRECEDENT, 1903-1939 A Dissertation by LORI ANN HENNING Submitted to the Office of the Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Jonathan Coopersmith Committee Members, Brian Linn Chester Dunning Adam Seipp Peter Hugill Head of Department, David Vaught May 2015 Major Subject: History Copyright 2015 Lori Ann Henning ABSTRACT This work examines the unique threat and opportunity posed by aviation to the horse cavalry in the 1900s through the 1930s and how cavalrymen responded. During that period, the American and British cavalries encountered advancing technologies that threatened to change war and directly alter cavalry’s armament, tactics, and overall role. With airplanes as with bicycles and other new technologies, cavalry officers were cautious. Rather than uncritically embracing or rejecting new technologies completely, cavalrymen tested them before coming to conclusions. Cavalrymen cautiously examined the capabilities of airplanes, developed applications and doctrine for joint operations, and in the United States, even tried to develop their own specially designed aircraft. Airplanes promised to relieve the cavalry of low-priority missions, not threaten its existence. Instead of replacing the cavalry in the 1910s-1930s, airplanes worked cooperatively with cavalry in reconnaissance, security, communication, protection, and pursuit, a cooperation tested in maneuvers and officially blessed in both British and American doctrine. Just as cavalrymen became dependent on the close working relationship with airplanes in the 1920s-30s, this relationship altered drastically as aviation priorities and doctrine shifted to independent strategic bombardment from tactical support of ground troops. Airplane deployment and development began to overlook the missions of tactical support. The experiences and responses of American and British cavalrymen to airplanes differed. While the British cavalry was the older organization with a more established ii institution and traditions, it failed to mount a strong or lasting defense against the encroachments of the nascent aviation service into its reconnaissance and scouting roles. The American cavalry, despite its youth, contested the control of reconnaissance almost immediately in the 1910s and throughout the 1930s, decades after similar arguments ended in Britain. Grounding this research are a variety of primary and secondary sources including government reports, memoirs, personal journals, books, professional journals, magazines, trade journals, and newspapers. iii DEDICATION In loving memory of the most caring and supportive person in my life, my grandmother Lois McCreary. Gram, I wish you were still here to see it. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ........................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 Historiography ..................................................................................................... 2 Sources ........................................................................................................ 15 Chapter Breakdown ............................................................................................. 16 CHAPTER II AMERICAN AND BRITISH CAVALRY PRIOR TO HEAVIER THAN AIR FLIGHT ................................................... 24 United States Cavalry before 1903 ...................................................................... 24 British Cavalry prior to World War I .................................................................. 48 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 64 CHAPTER III THE BIRTH OF AND EARLY RESPONSE TO HEAVIER THAN AIR FLIGHT: THREATS IN THE PRESS AND CAVALRY REACTION 1903-1917 ............................................. 66 Origins of American Military Aviation ............................................................... 69 Early British Military Aviation ........................................................................... 73 Cavalry and Aviation Linked .............................................................................. 80 Responses to Early Aviation Predictions prior to 1912 ...................................... 89 Britain before 1912 .............................................................................................. 95 Responding to New Technological and Political Realities ................................. 103 Maneuvers ........................................................................................................ 110 War ........................................................................................................ 114 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 122 CHAPTER IV DEVELOPING A RELATIONSHIP IN THE 1920S .................... 125 v Postwar Status of Debates ................................................................................... 128 Postwar Cavalry Response .................................................................................. 133 Juvenile, Emotional, and Irrational Arguments................................................... 146 Building a Cooperative Relationship .................................................................. 150 American Operations and Maneuvers ................................................................. 156 British Maneuvers ............................................................................................... 165 Another Challenge from Aviation ....................................................................... 169 Doctrine ........................................................................................................ 170 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 175 CHAPTER V NATIONAL ECONOMY-AVIATION VS. THE CAVALRY .... 177 Cavalry Stereotype? ............................................................................................ 180 Great Britain-Air Organization ........................................................................... 184 Retention of the RAF through the Promise of Air Policing ................................ 191 British Air Policing in Practice ........................................................................... 201 United States ....................................................................................................... 206 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 216 CHAPTER VI AUTOGIROS AND MECHANIZATION-THE 1930S ................ 218 Doctrine and Regulations .................................................................................... 219 Making the Relationship Work ........................................................................... 226 Autogiros ........................................................................................................ 233 The New Challenger-Tanks ................................................................................ 249 Arguing for British Cavalry Reductions ............................................................. 263 Stereotypes ........................................................................................................ 266 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 272 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 274 NOMENCLATURE .................................................................................................. 291 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 292 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................... 328 APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................... 330 vi LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page 3-1 Articles Mentioning Aviation in the Journal of the United States Cavalry Association and the Cavalry Journal (UK) ................................................ 91 3-2 Authors of JUSCA Articles Mentioning Aviation ...................................... 94 5-1 Selected Committees on National and Military Expenditure ..................... 186 6-1 Relative Cost and Estimated Performance ................................................. 247 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This work examines how American and British cavalrymen responded to the unique threat and opportunity posed by aeroplanes from 1903 through 1939.1 They perceived aviation as both a threat and potential opportunity, their opinions shifting over time as aviation technology improved and their understanding of their branch’s