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Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ANTI-AMERICANISM IN SOUTH KOREA, 1945-1992: A STRUGGLE FOR POSITIVE NATIONAL IDENTITY by Duk-Hwan Kim submitted to the Faculty of the School of International Service of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Affairs Signatures of Committeej^^ Chair : ,.C-- L O (3rQ)<i77Uh^ Dean of the School s j Date 1992 The American University _ Washington, B.C. 20016 THE AHSSICilT UHIVEESITY LIBEABY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by Duk-Hwan Kim 1992 All Rights Reserved Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. To my parents Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ANTI-AMERICANISM IN SOUTH KOREA, 1945-1992: A STRUGGLE FOR POSITIVE NATIONAL IDENTITY By Duk-Hwan Kim ABSTRACT The study of anti-Americanism began in earnest only in 1985. Since that time, functionalists have dominated the field with definitions that stress outward manifestations and varieties of anti-Americanism rather than causes. This study advocates a reorientation toward the emotional, social psychological foundations of anti-Americanism to understand how and why it arises and to determine what unites different varieties of the phenomenon. Accordingly, the discussion draws heavily upon recent perspectives in social psychology, psychology, and anthropology, with special emphasis on the applications of Henri Tajfel's social identity theory and Helen Lewis's shame theory. A new definition is offered which distinguishes between anti-Americanism and anti- American sentiments. Common to both, it is argued, is a shame-based anger that is aimed less at the United States and more at negative national self-images. The goal of anti- American movements is to reduce the considerable ambivalence 11 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. inherent in anti-American sentiment by stressing American hypocrisy and immorality. Once this is achieved, these movements attempt to redefine the national identity in positive terms, without reference to U.S. standards of comparison. In addition to presenting a new interpretation of anti- Americanism, this study identifies the distinctive features of Korea's social and historical experience that contributed to the subsequent growth of anti-Americanism and anti- American sentiments — including a dependency-oriented patronage system that governed both domestic politics and Korea's relations with the outside world. The study then traces the ideological and organizational development of anti-Americanism as it fused with radical opposition to repressive government. In assessing the impact of this movement on college campuses, it is argued that anti- Americanism, along with Marxist rejection of American political and economic principles, gained the sympathy of most students. Measuring the prevalence of the more diffuse anti-American sentiments off-campus awaits refinements in survey questions. The study does attempt to demonstrate, in the meantime, that anti-American resentments are common within the general population. A summary of the sources of mistrust in Korean-U.S. relations leads to the conclusion that trust-building measures may mitigate bilateral tensions. Ultimately, however, the reduction of anti- iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. American sentiments depends on the ability of Koreans to find pride in their growing national accomplishments and to redefine their identities in terms of present abilities rather than past shortcomings. IV Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PREFACE It is a rare Korean student of political science who fails to consider, at some point in his or her career, the state of South Korean-U.S. relations. Devout nationalists, Koreans are exceptionally attentive to matters affecting their country's development and its standing in the world community. And no other country has greater influence over South Korea's future than does the United States— as military ally, trading partner, a- . world leader. With my interest in international relations, it is especially understandable that I should have chosen as my dissertation topic some issue of importance to both South Korea and the United States. Anti-Americanism in South Korea seemed an appropriate choice since it had been conspicuously neglected by scholars in both countries, despite its troubling implications for both Washington and Seoul. What was less foreseeable to me was how much my studies would lead to a broader consideration of anti- Americanism. At first I hoped to understand why so much tension exists in a bilateral relationship cemented by a forty-year old military alliance and a history of close cooperation in matters of foreign policy and trade. But as I V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. consulted comparative studies of anti-Americanism for insights, it occurred to me that the key to understanding the Korean-U.S. dilemma lay in perceiving the broader question of what anti-Americanism is, at bottom, how it spreads, and how it may be contained. The answers I found in general works on anti-Americanism were not satisfying. Most of the recent studies recognized that anti-Americanism is more than a momentary fit of pique at some wrongful or misguided U.S. policy or action, more than distaste for some offensive aspect of American culture. In many cases, anti- Americanism was described as a smoldering resentment that was not sparked by a failure to resolve discrete and narrow differences of interest with the United States. But what I wanted to know, and could not find in these studies, was a precise identification of what animates this smoldering resentment. This unsatisfied curiosity led to readings outside the field of political science and into psychology, social psychology, and anthropology. If I have shown insufficient understanding of the propositions encountered in these fields, I nevertheless hope that this attempt to apply their findings will spawn more productive efforts to understand anti-Americanism in all its forms. This dissertation is thus more a case study of anti- Americanism than it is the study of the specific social and political movement with which it became identified in South Korea. It does not offer as exhaustive treatment of vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. opposition politics in South Korea. Rather, it seeks to identify and account for the similarities and differences between the anti-Americanism of radical activists and the milder, less consistent, anti-American sentiments of the general population. I hope at some later time to research more fully the anti-American sentiments of political conservatives in South Korea, as well as those of less politically-oriented groups such as the millenarian followers of Cheunasandc. My primary aim is to suggest a new approach to the study of anti-Americanism and, relatedly, nationalism. While most previous studies have focused outward at the manifestations