)%4()34/29/&4%#(./,/'93%2)%3 3ERIES%DITORS$R""OWERS $R#(EMPSTEAD (ISTORYOF 4ELEGRAPHY /THERVOLUMESINTHISSERIES 6OLUME 4HEHISTORYOFELECTRICWIRESANDCABLES2-"LACK 6OLUME 4ECHNICALHISTORYOFTHEBEGINNINGSOFRADAR333WORDS 6OLUME "RITISHTELEVISIONTHEFORMATIVEYEARS27"URNS 6OLUME 6INTAGETELEPHONESOFTHEWORLD0*0OVEYAND2%ARL 6OLUME 4HE'%#RESEARCHLABORATORIESp2*#LAYTONAND*!LGAR 6OLUME -ETRESTOMICROWAVES%"#ALLICK 6OLUME !HISTORYOFTHEWORLDSEMICONDUCTORINDUSTRY02-ORRIS 6OLUME 7IRELESSTHECRUCIALDECADEp'"USSEY 6OLUME !SCIENTISTSWARpTHEDIARYOF3IR#LIFFORD0ATERSONp2*#LAYTON AND*!LGAR%DITORS 6OLUME %LECTRICALTECHNOLOGYINMININGTHEDAWNOFANEWAGE!6*ONESAND 204ARKENTER 6OLUME #URIOSITYPERFECTLYSATISÙED&ARADAYlSTRAVELSIN%UROPE ""OWERSAND,3YMONDS%DITORS 6OLUME -ICHAEL&ARADAYlSk#HEMICAL.OTES (INTS 3UGGESTIONSAND/BJECTSOF 0URSUITlOF2$4WENEYAND$'OODING%DITORS 6OLUME ,ORD+ELVINHISINÚUENCEONELECTRICALMEASUREMENTSANDUNITS 04UNBRIDGE 6OLUME (ISTORYOFINTERNATIONALBROADCASTING VOLUME*7OOD 6OLUME 4HEEARLYHISTORYOFRADIOFROM&ARADAYTO-ARCONI'2-'ARRATT 6OLUME %XHIBITINGELECTRICITY+'"EAUCHAMP 6OLUME 4ELEVISIONANINTERNATIONALHISTORYOFTHEFORMATIVEYEARS27"URNS 6OLUME (ISTORYOFINTERNATIONALBROADCASTING VOLUME*7OOD 6OLUME ,IFEANDTIMESOF!LAN$OWER"LUMLEIN27"URNS 6OLUME !HISTORYOFTELEGRAPHYITSTECHNOLOGYANDAPPLICATION+'"EAUCHAMP 6OLUME 2ESTORING"AIRDlSIMAGE$&-C,EAN 6OLUME *OHN,OGIE"AIRDTELEVISIONPIONEER27"URNS 6OLUME 3IR#HARLES7HEATSTONE NDEDITION""OWERS 6OLUME 2ADIOMANTHEREMARKABLERISEANDFALLOF#/3TANLEY-&RANKLAND 6OLUME %LECTRICRAILWAYS p-#$UFFY 6OLUME #OMMUNICATIONSANINTERNATIONALHISTORYOFTHEFORMATIVEYEARS 27"URNS 6OLUME 3PACECRAFTTECHNOLOGYTHEEARLYYEARS-7ILLIAMSON (ISTORYOF 4ELEGRAPHY +EN"EAUCHAMP 4HE)NSTITUTIONOF%NGINEERINGAND4ECHNOLOGY 0UBLISHEDBY4HE)NSTITUTIONOF%NGINEERINGAND4ECHNOLOGY ,ONDON 5NITED+INGDOM &IRSTEDITION4HE)NSTITUTIONOF%LECTRICAL%NGINEERS .EWCOVER4HE)NSTITUTIONOF%NGINEERINGAND4ECHNOLOGY &IRSTPUBLISHED 4HISPUBLICATIONISCOPYRIGHTUNDERTHE"ERNE#ONVENTIONANDTHE5NIVERSAL#OPYRIGHT #ONVENTION!LLRIGHTSRESERVED!PARTFROMANYFAIRDEALINGFORTHEPURPOSESOFRESEARCH ORPRIVATESTUDY ORCRITICISMORREVIEW ASPERMITTEDUNDERTHE#OPYRIGHT $ESIGNSAND 0ATENTS!CT THISPUBLICATIONMAYBEREPRODUCED STOREDORTRANSMITTED INANY FORMORBYANYMEANS ONLYWITHTHEPRIORPERMISSIONINWRITINGOFTHEPUBLISHERS ORIN THECASEOFREPROGRAPHICREPRODUCTIONINACCORDANCEWITHTHETERMSOFLICENCESISSUED BYTHE#OPYRIGHT,ICENSING!GENCY%NQUIRIESCONCERNINGREPRODUCTIONOUTSIDETHOSE TERMSSHOULDBESENTTOTHEPUBLISHERSATTHEUNDERMENTIONEDADDRESS 4HE)NSTITUTIONOF%NGINEERINGAND4ECHNOLOGY -ICHAEL&ARADAY(OUSE 3IX(ILLS7AY 3TEVENAGE (ERTS 3'!9 5NITED+INGDOM WWWTHEIETORG 7HILETHEAUTHORANDTHEPUBLISHERSBELIEVETHATTHEINFORMATIONANDGUIDANCEGIVEN INTHISWORKARECORRECT ALLPARTIESMUSTRELYUPONTHEIROWNSKILLANDJUDGEMENTWHEN MAKINGUSEOFTHEM.EITHERTHEAUTHORNORTHEPUBLISHERSASSUMEANYLIABILITYTO ANYONEFORANYLOSSORDAMAGECAUSEDBYANYERROROROMISSIONINTHEWORK WHETHER SUCHERROROROMISSIONISTHERESULTOFNEGLIGENCEORANYOTHERCAUSE!NYANDALLSUCH LIABILITYISDISCLAIMED 4HEMORALRIGHTOFTHEAUTHORTOBEIDENTIÙEDASAUTHOROFTHISWORKHASBEENASSERTED BYHIMINACCORDANCEWITHTHE#OPYRIGHT $ESIGNSAND0ATENTS!CT "RITISH,IBRARY#ATALOGUINGIN0UBLICATION$ATA "EAUCHAMP +'+ENNETH'EORGE p !HISTORYOFTELEGRAPHYITSTECHNOLOGYANDAPPLICATION )%4HISTORYOFTECHNOLOGYSERIESNO 4ELEGRAPHp(ISTORY )4ITLE ll )3".DIGIT )3".DIGIT 4YPESETBY2EÙNE#ATCH,TD "UNGAY 3UFFOLK &IRSTPRINTEDINTHE5+BY3HORT2UN0RESS,TD %XETER $EVON 2EPRINTEDINTHE5+BY,IGHTNING3OURCE5+,TD -ILTON+EYNES House flags of the telegraph companies Source: Haigh, ‘Cableships and Cables’, 1979 Contents List of figures xiii List of tables xvii Preface xviii Abbreviations xxi PART 1 – TERRESTRIAL TELEGRAPHY 1 1 Things mechanical 3 1.1 Shutter systems 4 1.2 Chappé’s telegraph 6 1.3 Popham and the Admiralty installation 8 1.4 Some semaphore systems in Europe 14 1.5 Semaphore in the United States 16 1.6 Operations 17 References 18 2 Early electrical ideas 20 2.1 Electrostatic devices 20 2.2 Electrochemical devices 22 2.3 The ‘needle’ telegraphs 24 2.4 Cooke and Wheatstone 30 2.5 Telegraphy on the railways 34 2.6 Dial telegraphs 40 2.7 Codes and ciphers 47 References 49 3 Commercial telegraphy 51 3.1 Morse and single-line working 51 3.2 Telegraph companies in the United States 57 3.3 Development in Britain 69 3.4 The Telegraph Acts of 1868–69 73 3.4.1 The Electric & International Telegraph Company 74 viii Contents 3.4.2 The British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company 77 3.4.3 The London & District Telegraph Company 77 3.4.4 The United Kingdom Electric Telegraph Company 78 3.4.5 The Universal Private Telegraph Company 79 3.4.6 The Reuter’s Telegram Company 80 3.4.7 The Exchange Telegraph Company 80 3.5 Faster, cheaper telegrams 81 3.6 Recording and printing 85 3.7 Overhead or underground? 90 3.8 Telegraphy in British India 94 References 99 4 Military operations 102 4.1 War in the Crimea 103 4.2 The Indian Mutiny 108 4.3 The American Civil War 110 4.4 European conflicts 115 4.5 African colonial wars 117 4.5.1 The Nile and Egyptian campaigns 119 4.5.2 The Boer War 122 4.6 Early British Army telegraph training 126 4.7 The Telegraph Battalion 126 4.8 The Society of Telegraph Engineers 127 4.9 British Army signalling 128 References 132 5 Submarine cables 134 5.1 Leaving the land 134 5.2 Gutta-percha 135 5.3 Crossing the Channel 138 5.4 The Siberian Telegraph 142 5.5 Oceanic cables 147 5.6 Theory and techniques 148 5.6.1 Loading 151 5.6.2 Sensitive detectors 152 5.7 Atlantic crossing 154 5.8 Links to South America 156 5.9 Cable-laying technology 158 5.10 A Committee of Inquiry 160 5.11 A Cable to India . 162 5.12 . and further East 168 5.13 The Australian connection 171 5.14 The world encompassed 174 References 178 Contents ix PART 2 – AERIAL TELEGRAPHY 181 6 Marconi and the experimenters 183 6.1 Beginnings 184 6.2 Marconi 186 6.3 Transatlantic attempt 190 6.4 Spark and arc 192 6.4.1 ‘Short spark’ operation 194 6.4.2 The electric arc 200 6.4.3 The high-frequency alternator 201 6.4.4 Frequency multiplication 202 6.5 Production and power 204 6.5.1 The ‘Marconi system’ 206 6.5.2 Marconi high-power stations 208 6.5.3 Duplex working 210 6.5.4 Telefunken and Siemens 210 6.5.5 Keying at high power 215 6.5.6 Continuous waves in the United States 215 References 221 7 Telegraphy for peace . 224 7.1 The advent of thermionics 225 7.1.1 Detection 225 7.1.2 Amplification and oscillation 227 7.1.3 Transmission 229 7.2 Linking the Empire 231 7.2.1 Cable and wireless 238 7.2.2 Reuters and the news service 240 7.3 Maritime communication 240 7.3.1 Wireless training in the merchant navy 244 7.3.2 Codes, telegrams and newspapers at sea 246 7.4 Life-saving at sea 248 7.5 International agreements 254 7.6 Civil aviation 257 7.7 The role of amateurs 260 References 262 8 . and at war 266 8.1 Army wireless before 1914 267 8.2 War on the ground, 1914–18 268 8.2.1 Wireless direction-finding 269 8.2.2 Trench warfare 272 8.2.3 Wireless at the front 276 8.2.4 Two military engagements 281 8.3 The inter-war years 284 x Contents 8.4 War on the ground, 1939–45 285 8.4.1 Line working 286 8.4.2 The African campaigns 288 8.4.3 Communication systems 289 8.4.4 Across the Channel 292 8.5 Army wireless in the Second World War 294 8.5.1 Allied wireless equipment 296 8.5.2 German Army wireless 301 8.6 British Army training and recruitment 304 References 305 9 Military telegraphy at sea 308 9.1 Wireless experiments at sea 308 9.2 War at sea, 1914–18 314 9.2.1 Shipboard wireless equipment 317 9.2.2 The Naval wireless telegraph network 322 9.2.3 Cable operations 323 9.3 The shore stations 324 9.4 The inter-war years 327 9.5 War at sea, 1939–45 329 9.5.1 Allied wireless equipment 333 9.5.2 German wireless equipment 337 9.6 Cable ships and cables 340 9.7 British naval wireless training 342 References 345 10 Military telegraphy in the air 348 10.1 The dirigible 348 10.2 War in the air, 1914–18 350 10.2.1 British airborne equipment 353 10.2.2 Training telegraphists for air operations 359 10.2.3 American airborne equipment 360 10.2.4 German airborne equipment 362 10.3 The inter-war years 365 10.3.1 Use of shorter wavelengths 367 10.3.2 The 1929 development programme 369 10.4 War in the air, 1939–45 370 10.4.1 British airborne equipment 371 10.4.2 American airborne equipment 376 10.4.3 German airborne equipment 377 10.5 RAF wireless training 383 References 386 11 Epilogue 389 11.1 The demise of Morse 389 11.2 High-speed telegraphy 390 Contents xi 11.3 Baudot and the new codes 391 11.3.1 Keyboard machines 396 11.3.2 The teleprinter 397 11.3.3 Military use of the teleprinter 398 11.4 Telegram, telex and the telephone 399 11.4.1 The telex service 399 11.4.2 Telephony by submarine cable and satellite 401 11.5 The digital revolution 403 References 404 Index 405 List of figures Frontispiece House flags of the telegraph companies v 1.1 Murray’s shutter system, devised for the Admiralty in 1796 5 1.2 A station in Claude Chappé’s telegraph system 7 1.3 Chappé’s semaphore network in France, 1850 9 1.4 Popham’s semaphore line to Portsmouth 10 1.5 A London–Portsmouth semaphore station 11 1.6 Gamble’s mobile semaphore system, used for the Army 12 1.7 Watson’s semaphore station on the South Downs, 1841 13 1.8 The Prussian semaphore alphabet 15 1.9 A Prussian station in the Potsdam–Koblenz semaphore line 16 2.1 Sömmerring’s electrochemical telegraph 23 2.2 The indicator for Schilling’s telegraph system 27 2.3 Principle of the astatic galvanometer 27 2.4 Circuit diagram for Schilling’s six-needle telegraph 29 2.5 Alexander’s electric telegraph 33 2.6 Wheatstone’s five-needle ‘hatchment telegraph’, first used on the Euston–Camden railway line