Language and Literature India is (one of the) world’s oldest civilization and so is the Indian literature. Initially it was essentially oral. Thus the earliest works were composed to be sung or recited and then transmitted from generations. Later on this work was started being written down. Many languages were developed and flourished in India and so does the literature associated with various literary forms. Let’s look at it one by one. Ancient Indian Literature - It covers almost every aspect of literary forms present in the world. It includes (in broadest sense) religious, mundane, poetry (didactic and dramatic), epic and lyric scientific prose and narrative as well as oral poetry and song. It will be incorrect to say that Indian Literature is based on only the religious classics of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism .Jain narrative literature is full of erotic stories and realism which is written in Prakrit language. One of the oldest literary work i.e. Vedas are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value they have multiple meanings. Vedic ritual is preserved in literary text called Brahmanas. It is mainly divided into two parts: ritualistic injunction and dissuasions. The great Indian epics, Ramayana (1500 BC) and Mahabharata (10UUBC) are the ethnic memories of Indian people. Both these epics are rich in motifs and have universal appeal. Sanskrit Literature - The Sanskrit language is basically bifurcated into the Vedic and the Classical. Classical Sankrit literature includes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales, didactic fables, gnomic poetry, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, law, science literature, grammar Apart from Vedas, which are a sacred form of knowledge, there are other works such as ‘Vastu Shastra’ which explains architecture and town planning; ‘Arthashastra’ which illucidates political science, political systems etc. Apart from Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata other famous works in Sanskrit are the holy texts like Upanishadas, Manusmriti, Vedas, etc. Other such great literatures which played leading role in marking the golden era of Indian literature includes ‘Meghdout’ and ‘Abhijanam Shakuntalam’ written by great poet Kalidasu; ‘Mricchakatika’ by Shudraka; ‘Kamasutra’ by Vatsyayana; ‘Arthashastra’ by Chanakya; ‘Ratnavali by Shri Harsha; ‘Svapna Vasavadattam’ by Bhaasa. Kalidas who is a tallest figure in epic poetry also wrote ‘Kumarasambhava’ (the birth of Kumar), ‘Raghuvamsa’ (the dynasty of the Raghus). Other distinguished poets are Bharavi who wrote ‘Kiratarjuniyam’ (Kirat and Arjun); Megha wrote ‘Sishupalavadha’ (the killing of Sishupal). The main objective of Nataka (Drama) or Kavya (Poem) is to offer the reader or spectator entertainment (Lokaranjan) as well as stimulate his feelings and giving him or her a perspective to illuminate their way to live life. The drama is thus packed with poetry and descriptive prose. Sanskrit literature is filled with lyrical poetry of very high quality. Poetry contains a fusion of religious and erotic sentiments. There is high diversity in Indian culture and so division between GS I - Culture / 37 art and religious in Indian culture seems to be less sharp than in Europe & China. In Kalidasa’s narrative lyric poem, Meghadut, the poet makes a cloud a messenger to tell the story of two lavers who are separated. This is also quite in keeping with the sublime conception of love, which looks dark in separation. Jayadeva (12 cen A.D.) is also one of the great Sanskrit poet, who wrote lyric poetry Gitagovinda (describes every phase of love between Krishna & Rodha) in picturesque lyrical language. The didactic fable Panchatantra (five technique or chapters) dealing with politics & political wisdom, which was written by Vishnu Sharma and the Hitopadesha thebird, animal-human & non-human stories of advice for benefit of listeners, which was written by Narayan Pandit are literary masterpieces. These popular fables are obviously a retelling of folklore. Pali & Prakrit Literature - After vedic period Pali & Prakrit were the spoken languages in India. Pali is archaic Prakrit. Pali is a combination of many dialects. These were adopted by Buddhist & Jain sects in ancient India as their sacred languages. Lord Budha used to give his sermons in Pali. Budhist canonical literature is in Pali. It includes Tipitaka (3 fold basket), first basket – Vinaya Pitaka (contains monastic rule¬s of the Order of Buddhist monks). Second basket – Sutta Pitaka (a collection of the speeches and dialogues of Buddha). Third basket – Abhiadhamma Pitaka (elucidates) various topics dealing with ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge. The Jataka Kathas are non- canonical Buddhist literature in which stories relating to the former births of the Buddha (Bodhi- sattva or the would be Buddha) are narrated. These stories propogate Buddhist religious doctrines and are available in both Sanskrit & Pali. As Jataka stories grew a lot, they assimilated popular tales, ancient mythology, stories from older religious traditions, etc. Jain tales (like the Buddhist stories) are also didactic in character. Some forms of Prakrit is used in them. Jain canonical literature by Jain Saints and a large number of works on lexicography and grammer by Hemachandra (1088 A.D.) is well known. Gathasaptashati (700 verses) written by Hala (300 A.D.) is a well know Pakrit literature. Hala in this 700 verses includes his own 44 poems. The vast Katha (story) literature of Prakrit, Written with conspicuous religious overtone, even by Jain saints is full of erotic elements. The author of Vasudevahindi ascribes this changed approach of the Jain authors to the fact that it is easy to teach religion cloaked by erotic episodes, like sugar coated medicine. Jain literature is also available in Sanskrit like the Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharcusi (960 A. D.) Dravidian Literature - The major 4 distinct Speech families which are origins of the way the Indian people speak languages are: the Austric, Sino-Tibetan, Indo-Europian and Dravidian. Dravidian literature mainly consists of 4 languages: kannada, Telgu, Tamil, Malayalam. Tamil is the oldest language which preserved its Dravidian character the most. Kannada, a cultured language is also as old as Tamil. All these languages have borrowed many words from Sanskrit and vice versa. Tamil is the only modern Indian language which is recognizably continuous with a classical past. Early classical Tamil literature 2 schools of poets, ‘aham’ (subjective love poems) and ‘puram’ (objective, public poetry & heroic). Puram deals with all kinds of emotions, 38 / Chanakya Mandal Pariwar - UPSC Mains Reference Book mainly valour and glory of kings & about gods & evils. Whereas Aham dcals purely with the subjective emotion of the lover. Sangam Literature - Under the patronage of Pandyan kings, Tamil poets did a commendable literary work, Sangam literary work was mainly developed in Pandyan capital – Maclurai. The Sangam classics, mainly consists of 18 works (8 anthologies of lyrics and 10 long poems), these are popular for their direct expression. These were written in 473 poets, among whom 30 were women, Author of 102 poems are unknown Most of these anthologies are of 3rd century B.C.). To under-stand early Tamil poetry, a Tamil grammer ‘Tolkappiyam’ was written during same period. This is believed to have written by Tolkappiyar (a disciple of Agastya) Tolkappiyam is basically a composition of grammar, social practices and literary conventions. Singam literature is not just the earliest evidence of Tamil genius. The famous Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, in the 6th cen. A. D., Serves as a manual of precepts to guide one to noble living. The great twin epics, Silappadhikaram (story of the anklets) written by Ilanga-Adigal and Manimekalai) by Chattanar were written sometimes in 200-300 A. D. depicts Tamil society of that period. Tamil reveals a triumph of Bramhanic and Buddhist knowledge whereas Kannada shows Jain axendency in its ancient time period. Malayalam absorbed a rich treasure contained in Sanskrit language. In Indian literature the effort has been to find out how a man can achieve divinity. Devotional songs in praise of the Hindu god Shiva are written by Tamil saint poet Nayanar in 6th – 8th century A. D. Besides its importance as poetry of emotional Bhakti it explains us classical Tamil civilization as a whole. Hindu Literature The Vedas - The word derived from Sanskrit word ‘vid’ means ‘to know’. Vedas are oldest literary works of India. Initially they were evolved through oral traditions. They includes two successive classes of literary creations: The Samhirtas, The Brahmanas & The Aranyakas ; and also Upanishads. They are basically collections of hymns, prayers, charms, sacrificial formulae. Samhitas a.Rig Veda Samhita - It is the oldest of all the Vedas which contains 1028 hymns/suktas, 10 Mandals, 8 Ashtakas. Some oldest Mandalas are welknown as family books an account of their composition is ascribed to the families of sages. b.Yajur Veda Samhita - It is divided in two parts viz – Krishna Yajurveda (commentary in prose) & Sukla Yajurveda (sacrificial formulae & rituals). It consist 40 chapters which were recited by priests. It is basically collection of rituals for performing different sacrifices. C.Sama veda Samhita As it is known as the ‘Book of Chants’, it has collection of Hymns taken from Rig Veda & only 75 hymns are original. These hymns are meant for singing at same Sarrifieies. It is mainly GS I - Culture / 39 availabk in 3 vesions