The Paracultural Imaginary: Cultural Appropriation, Heterophily and the Diffusion of Religious/Spiritual Traditions in Intercultural Communication by Terrie Siang-Ting Wong A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved September 2013 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Sarah Amira de la Garza, Co-Chair Eric Margolis, Co-Chair Megha Budruk Vivian Hsueh-Hua Chen ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2013 ABSTRACT Buddhism is thriving in US-America, attracting many converts with college and post-graduate degrees as well as selling all forms of popular culture. Yet little is known about the communication dynamics behind the diffusion of Buddhist religious/spiritual traditions into the United States. Religion is an underexplored area of intercultural communication studies (Nakayama & Halualani, 2010) and this study meets the lacuna in critical intercultural communication scholarship by investigating the communication practices of US-Americans adopting Asian Buddhist religious/spiritual traditions. Ethnographic observations were conducted at events where US-Americans gathered to learn about and practice Buddhist religious/spiritual traditions. In addition, interviews were conducted with US-Americans who were both learning and teaching Buddhism. The grounded theory method was used for data analysis. The findings of this study describe an emerging theory of the paracultural imaginary -- the space of imagining that one could be better than who one was today by taking on the cultural vestments of (an)Other. The embodied communication dynamics of intercultural exchange that take place when individuals adopt the rituals and philosophies of a foreign culture are described. In addition, a self-reflexive narrative of my struggle with the silence of witnessing the paracultural imaginary is weaved into the analysis. The findings from this study extend critical theorizing on cultural identity, performativity, and cultural appropriation in the diffusion of traditions between cultural groups. In addition, the study addresses the complexity of speaking out against the subtle prejudices in encountered in intercultural communication. i DEDICATION The American writer Elbert Hubbard once said: “He who does not understand your silence will probably not understand your words.” This text is dedicated to those who understand both my silence and my words. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 Religion/Spirituality in Intercultural Communication .................................... 4 US-American Buddhism .................................................................................. 6 Terminology ..................................................................................................... 7 Cultural Appropriation ..................................................................................... 8 Social Location and Standpoint ..................................................................... 10 Cultural and Academic Zeitgeist in the United States .................................. 17 Assumptions, Sensitizing Concepts and Guiding Questions ........................ 22 Summary ........................................................................................................ 29 2 METHOD .......................................................................................................... 30 Participant Observation .................................................................................. 32 Place ................................................................................................... 33 Activity .............................................................................................. 37 Actors ................................................................................................. 39 Coding ............................................................................................................ 42 Constant Comparison ........................................................................ 44 Axial Coding ...................................................................................... 45 iii CHAPTER Page Interviews ....................................................................................................... 46 Sampling and Interview Process ....................................................... 48 Interview Guide ................................................................................. 51 Coding ................................................................................................ 54 Writing and Analysis ..................................................................................... 55 3 THE PARACULTURAL IMAGINARY ......................................................... 57 Heterophily as Cosplay .................................................................................. 57 Cultural Universalization ............................................................................... 60 Passive Heterophilous Communication ........................................................ 65 Heterophily as Simulacra ............................................................................... 70 Capitalizing on Heterophily ........................................................................... 74 Negation of Capitalization ............................................................................. 78 Narrating Utopia ............................................................................................ 81 The Paracultural Imaginary ........................................................................... 84 4 ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................ 88 Heterophily as Cosplay .................................................................................. 89 Heterophily as Simulacra ............................................................................... 95 Passive Heterophilous Communication ...................................................... 100 Capitalizing on Heterophily ......................................................................... 108 Negation of Capitalization ........................................................................... 113 Cultural Universalization ............................................................................. 118 Narrating Utopia .......................................................................................... 120 iv CHAPTER Page Relationship Between Categories ................................................................ 122 Summary ...................................................................................................... 123 5 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................. 126 Theoretical Implications for Intercultural Communication Study ............. 130 Cultural Identity ............................................................................... 130 Place and Material Culture .............................................................. 133 The Definition of Intercultural Communication ............................. 134 The Dark Side of Intercultural Communication ......................................... 135 The Silent Legitimation of Oppression ........................................... 137 Future Research Directions .......................................................................... 140 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 143 APPENDIX A FIRST INTERVIEW GUIDE (JUNE 2012) .............................................. 153 B SECOND INTERVIEW GUIDE (JULY 23, 2012) ................................... 158 C IRB APPROVAL LETTER ........................................................................ 165 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Participant Observation Sites .............................................................. 34 2. Codebook Sample 6 th March 2012 ..................................................... 45 3. List of Interviewees (with Pseudonyms) ............................................ 49 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Figure 3.1. Properties of Heterophily as Cosplay ............................... 56 2. Figure 3.2. Properties of Cultural Universalization ............................ 60 3. Figure 3.3. Properties of Passive Heterophilous Communication ..... 65 4. Figure 3.4. Properties of Heterophily as Simulacra ........................... 70 5. Figure 3.5. Properties of Capitalizing on Heterophily ....................... 74 6. Figure 3.6. Properties of Negation of Capitalization .......................... 79 7. Figure 3.7. Properties of Narrating Utopia ......................................... 81 8. Figure 4.1. First-hand Heterophilous Communication .................... 106 9. Figure 4.2. Second-hand Heterophilous Communication ................ 106 10. Relationship between Categories ...................................................... 123 vii Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION “Our lives begin to end the day we become silent about things that matter” - Martin Luther King Jr. “Doesn’t