47 Omaha; and Union Switch and Signal Division of Westing- for Railroad Electrification. Arthur D. Little, Inc., house Air Brake Company, Swissvale, Pennsylvania. In Cambridge, Mass., and Transportation Systems addition, further refinement of this data was done under Center, U.S. Department of Transportation, 1976. the sponsorship of the United States Railway Association H. C. Kendall. Railroad Electrification: A Status and the Transportation Systems Center of the U.S. De- Report. General Railway Signal Co., Rochester, partment of Transportation. N.Y., 1975. M. P. Boissonade. L'Electrification Braut— REFERENCES Gravenchon avec Lignes de Contact 25-ky Simplifies. Revue Gnrale des Chemins de Fer (Paris), Dec. 1 E. G. Schwarm. Factors Affecting Railroad Elec- 1969. trification as Applied to Conrail. Arthur D. Little, E. G. Schwarm. Energy Costs for Railroad Elec- Inc., Cambridge, Mass., and United States Railway trification. Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass., Association, 1975. and Transportation Systems Center, U.S. Department 2. E. G. Schwarm. Engineering Cost Data Analysis of Transportation, 1977. Interference of Electrification With Signaling and Communication Systems Hugh C. Kendall, General Railway Signal Company, Rochester, New York Signal and communication systems are an integral part compatible with electrification represent a substantial of railroad operations and are essential to provide safe expense that has very little economic justification in and expeditious train movements. The major functions terms of increased safety or ease of railroad operations. performed by these systems are In reality, it is an expense that a railroad must make solely because of electrification. The signal engineer To maintain safe separation between trains and is therefore in a difficult situation and is sometimes to detect unsafe conditions in the track ahead of a train, considered a roadblock to electrification. In the past, e.g., a broken rail, misaligned switch, open bridge, the signal engineer has only been able to make capital rock slide, or high water; expenditures on the basis of sound economic justification. To detect unsafe conditions on cars and locomo- Electrification will require large sums of money just to tives, e.g., overheated journal bearings (hotboxes), recover the use of facilities that are already in service dragging equipment, broken flanges, loose wheels, or under diesel operations. high, wide, or shifted loads; and Open-wire lines along the right -of -way are generally To increase the traffic capacity of a railroad used in nonelectrified territory for interconnecting var- through centralized traffic control and automated ter- ious elements of the signal system, for transmitting minal control systems. power for battery-charging purposes, for transmitting commands and indications for centralized traffic control, Signal and communication systems must function with and for the maintainer's and dispatcher's telephones and utmost reliability under a wide range of environmental other communication purposes. Over the years, the conditions and must also withstand the interference ef- signal-to-noise ratio in these circuits has been gradually fects produced by commercial power systems along the degraded by the interference effects produced by high- right-of-way and, in the case of electrification, the ad- voltage power lines that have been erected along the ditional interference effects produced by the propulsion right-of-way. In some instances, it has been necessary power supply and the locomotives. It is reassuring to to place these circuits in shielded cable to effect satis- note that there have been signal and communication sys- factory coordination. tems designed and currently in service both in this In electrifying a railroad, the interference effects are country and abroad that are fully capable of reliable op - greatly compounded. The proximity of the catenary to eration under any or all of the above conditions. These the open-wire lines creates intolerable signal-to-noise systems are in general more complex and costly to in- ratios in these circuits and also increases the danger of stall and maintain than those currently employed in non- shock to personnel. On this basis, these lines must be electrified territory. Deciding whether to electrify a either eliminated or placed in suitably shielded cable. railroad does not therefore depend on the availability or Double-rail direct-current track circuits are gener- lack of signal or communications technology but depends ally used in nonelectrified territory to detect trains and rather on its economic justification. broken rails. Insulated joints in the rails are required Those railroads that carry more than half of the to isolate one track circuit from the next. In electrifying freight traffic in this country, and therefore are logical a railroad, the propulsion current flows through the rails candidates for electrification, have signal and commu- on its returnpath to the substation. A means must there- nication systems that are for the most part complete, fore be provided for this current to bypass the insulated quite modern, well maintained and long lived. Without joints. The commonly accepted means for accomplish- a very substantial increase in rail traffic, these facili- ing this creates a low-resistance path between the rails ties would not require alterations or additions. Unfor- at each end of the track circuit, just as the wheels of a tunately, the changes required to render these systems train do. Double-rail direct-current track circuits 48 therefore cannot be employed in electrified territory. V/mile) would be induced in it. This is a substantial re- They must instead be replaced by suitable alternating- duction from the case seen in Figure 1. current track circuits. Unfortunately, not all of the propulsion current re- The impact of the catenary system on parallel signal turns to the substation via the rails. The rails of a track and communication circuits will be examined below in structure are in close contact with the ballast, which detail, along with the consequences of using the track creates leakage paths between the rails and the ground. for both return of the propulsion current and detection It is not uncommon for the resistance between the rails of trains and broken rails. The costs associated with and the ground to measure less than 1 0 in a typical rendering existing signal and communication systems track circuit. In an electrified railroad, therefore, a compatible with the electrification environment will also portion of the returning propulsion current leaves the be identified. rails and flows back to the substation via a ground path. Due to the character of the ground as a conductor, the SOURCES OF INTERFERENCE phase angle of the returning propulsion current flowing in the ground path differs from that flowing in the rails, Signal and communication systems in alternating- which tends to reduce the neutralizing effect of the ground current electrified territory must withstand substantial current field on the catenary current field. Furthermore, interference effects produced by current flowing in the the effective ground return path is generally far removed catenary and the use of the rails to return the propul- from the catenary, with the depth of the path in the earth sion current. These interference effects may be con- dependent on the earth's resistivity and also on the dis- veniently divided into four categories: tance between a given locomotive and the substation. When this distance is large, a substantial portion of the Electromagnetic induction—the effect on a con- returning propulsion current flows in the ground path. ductor produced by varying current flowing in a parallel If one were to assume in Figure 2 that half of the re- conductor. turning propulsion current flowed in a ground path at a Electrostatic induction—the effect on a conductor depth of 75 m (246 ft) below the catenary, with the other produced when another conductor has a higher potential half flowing in the rails, it would be reasonable to expect than the ground. a longitudinally induced voltage of about 125 V/km (200 Rise in ground potential—the effect produced by V/mile) in a conductor that was 9 m away from the cate- the use of the ground as a conductor. nary. One means of reducing the induced voltage over Metallic cross -conduction —the effect produced long distances is to use a three-wire system with auto- by the accidental connection of one conductor to another, transformers and a negative feeder, as shown in Figure 3. This arrangement minimizes the induced voltage in Electromagnetic Induction the unoccupied sections between the substation and the autotransformers where the return current flows through Alternating current flowing in the catenary produces an the negative feeder, and the rail and ground currents are alternating magnetic field around the catenary. The negligible. With an autotransformer that has a 2:1 ratio, strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional the catenary and negative feeder current carry only half to the current, and it decreases as a function of dis- of the load current, and the negative feeder effectively tance from the catenary. The alternating magnetic field shields parallel conductors near the neutral plane. induces an alternating voltage of the same frequency in In the above examples, a catenary current of 1000 A any conductor that parallels the catenary regardless of at 60 Hz was assumed. This current might not be ex- whether the conductor is above or below ground. The ceeded under normal operations on a railroad that has induced voltage is proportional to the strength of the been electrified at 25 kV and undoubtedly would be well magnetic field, the frequency, and the length of parallel above that required in a 50-kV operation. It should be exposure. borne in mind, however, that a fault in the propulsion Figure 1 shows the voltage that would be induced in system could create a temporary catenary current of as a conductor 1 km (0.6 mile) long that paralleled a cate- much as 10 times normal amperage.