The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: The Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society Pandu Utama Manggala Australian National University, Australia Abstract Throughout the years, study on pre-colonial Southeast Asian international relations has not garnered major attention because it had long been seen as an integral part of the China- centred tribute system. There is a need to provide greater understanding of the uniqueness of the international system as different regions have different ontologies to comprehend its dynamics and structures. This paper contributes to the pre-colonial Southeast Asian literature by examining the interplay that had existed between pre-colonial Southeast Asian empires and the hierarchical East Asian international society, in particular during the 13th- 16th Century. The paper argues that Southeast Asian international relations in pre-colonial time were characterized by complex political structures with the influence of Mandala values. In that structural context, the Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest empires at that time had its own constitutional structures of an international society, albeit still sought close relations with China. Keywords: Pre-Colonial History, Southeast Asia, Mandala, Tributary System Introduction Southeast Asian countries were far from peaceful and stable under the tribute Throughout the years, study on pre- system. Fierce competition for survival and colonial Southeast Asian international domination had characterized the balance relations has not garnered major attention of power politics throughout the pre- because it had long been seen as an integral colonial era (Shu 2012b, p. 46). part of the China-centred tribute system. For that reason, there is a need to Moreover, Southeast Asia has often been provide greater understanding of the regarded as a political backwater uniqueness of the international system as compared to East Asia because Southeast different regions have different ontologies Asia as a region is seen as relatively to comprehend its dynamics and structures. passive, always subjected to the influence This paper contributes to the pre-colonial of great powers (PengEr & Teo 2012, p.2). It Southeast Asian literature by examining the is often said that under the Chinese interplay that had existed between pre- hierarchical order, Asian international colonial Southeast Asian empires and the relations was seen as stable and regional hierarchical East Asian international order had been achieved until the arrival of society, in particular during the 13th-16th the Western powers in the 19th Century Century. The paper draws a boundary from (Kang 2007). However, pre-colonial Kangs and Suzukis 9 article Journal of ASEAN Studies, Vol.1,No.1 (2013), pp. 1–13 ©2013by CBDS Bina Nusantara University and Indonesian Association for International Relations ISSN 2338-1361 print / ISSN2338-1353 electronic 2 The Mandala Culture of Anarchy that too much focus on the centrality of purpose of state, the organizing principle China-dominated regional hierarchy. of sovereignty, and the norm of procedural Nevertheless, both articles are used to justice. understand the nature of Chinas The rest of the paper is organized in the hegemonic presence in pre-colonial following way. The next part elaborates Southeast Asia. some theoretical grounding to be used in The paper argues that Southeast Asian the analysis. The comparative investigation international relations in pre-colonial time of Kangs and Suzukis article is the starting were characterized by complex political point to analyse the complex political structures with the influence of Mandala structure that existed in the East Asian values. In that structural context, the international society and further added Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest with Wendts conception of anarchy. The empires at that time had its own second part discusses some essential constitutional structures of an international characteristics and the constitutional society, albeit still sought close relations structure of the Majapahit Empire. The third with China. Therefore, the paper debates part explores the interaction between the the nature of hierarchical Chinas tributary Majapahit Empire and hierarchical East system in pre-colonial Southeast Asia. In Asian international society. The focus is to policy terms, the findings of the article highlight the international structures that indicate that the interactive dynamics existed and how those structures shape the within the subsidiary system created norms relationship between the Majapahit Empire that are rooted in what Rother (2012) calls and the Chinas tributary system. Lastly, the as the cultural memory of a region. This paper concludes with a summary of the helps to explain, for example the conduct of main findings and discusses the implication foreign policy in the Southeast Asia. of the study. The method of this paper is cross- disciplinary studies which combine the finding of area studies and international Anarchy, Hierarchy and the East Asian relations theory to provide a deeper International Society understanding of the process of socialization and mutual adaptation Anarchy is a crucial yet highly between the Southeast Asian and the East contentious concept in international Asia international society. The term relations. In its formal sense, Anarchy international society used in the article means that there is no supreme authority refers to Bull & Watson (1984) above states. In the classical texts of understanding of international system international relations theory, anarchy is which is a society of state that is built upon often became the central theoretical debate. inter-subjectivity through common interests On the one hand are proponents of the and common values. This society bound realist theory who accept the condition of themselves by a common set of rules and anarchy but argue that this does not institutions for the conduct of their necessarily preclude order, society, and relations. Furthermore, detailed analysis of community beyond the nation state. The pre-colonial Southeast Asian international other hand are liberalists who assert that relations is elaborated using Reus Smits anarchy is incompatible with order and the three normative beliefs of constitutional realization is only possible once anarchy is structures of an international society (1999). replaced by governance of one sort of These three normative beliefs are the moral another (Evans & Newnham 1998, p. 19). Journal of ASEAN Studies 3 In the development stage of the debate, coordinated efforts to constrain China. Kenneth Waltz with his influential Theory Kang derives the hierarchic model from of International Politics employed anarchy assumptions that states are the main unit of and power as central analytical concepts to analysis and anarchy is the prevailing the balance of power theory. Waltz (1979) condition for international system. argued that the international system Although he draws on his argument from functions like a market which is interposed realist assumptions, Kang rejects the neo- between the economic actors and the results realist notion that hierarchy cannot coexist they produce. It conditions their with anarchy in the international system, calculations, their behaviour and their and instead uses hierarchy as shorthand interactions pp. 9-91). By this, Waltz for unequal relations amongst states, but asserted that it is structure that shapes and short of hegemony or empire Goh 9, p. constrains the political relationship of the 107). In short, Kang tries to combine the component units. In an anarchical world, logic of anarchy and hierarchy in the sense states need to rely only on self-help and of realist understanding. balance of power is created through The main premise for Kangs argument balancing behaviour by weaker states is that the region more comfortable with a towards the potential hegemon (Shu 2012a, strong China because of the cultural p. 4). Moreover, Waltz and other neorealist prominence of Confucianism, the disparity proponents have sought to contrast the in economic and military strength, and the concept of anarchy with the idea of long-standing influences of the tribute hierarchy. According to neorealist, because system Kang . In contrast with neo- the system is anarchy it cannot be a realist that emphasizes balancing against hierarchy (Evans & Newnham 1998, p. 224). the predominant power, Kang believes that Several IR scholars have made lesser states will most likely bandwagon for surpassing arguments to reject the profit (Kang 2007, p. 167). Some of the exclusiveness of anarchy and hierarchy. For benefits are security protection, bigger example, Lake (2009) uses the notion of opportunities for market and trade, and degrees of hierarchy along a single- external arbitration. The hierarchical order dimensional continuum between total itself is preserved through a combination of anarchy and complete hierarchy to identify benefits and sanctions that the central different forms of hierarchical relations. power provides to the lesser power. However, not many scholars have Kangs article provides a new analytical specifically examined the relationship framework for Asian international relations. between anarchy and hierarchy from an His elaboration shows that Eurocentrics Asian international relations perspective. international relations theories do poor David Kang (2007) and Shogo Suzuki (2009) jobs as they are applied to “sia Rother are among those who have analysed from 2012, p. 53). Nonetheless,