P a g e | 1 The dilemma of power relations in Samoa A study of cultural hegemony in a developing democracy A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Pacific Studies (Government and Politics) Levi Tavita Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies University of Canterbury Aotearoa New Zealand 2021 P a g e | 2 I do not think that a society can exist without power relations, if by that one means the strategies by which individuals try to direct and control the conduct of others. The problem, then, is not to try and dissolve them in the utopia of completely transparent communication, but to acquire the rules of law, the management techniques, and also morality, the ethos, the practice of the self that will allow us to play these games of power with as little domination as possible ______ Michel Foucault E gase toa ae ola pule The warrior will falter but good governance prevails _____ Samoan proverb P a g e | 3 Table of Contents Glossary …………………………………………………….…….................……....8 List of Tables/Figures ………………………………………...................................11 Map of Samoa ...........................................................................................................12 Acknowledgements ……………………………………….......................................13 Abstract …………………………………………………………….……....…........15 Abbreviations ………………………………………………………………............16 Chapter 1 Introduction 17 1.1 Broad aim of study ……………………………………….……….…...…...….19 1.2 Specific Objectives ………………………………..………...…...........…….…19 1.3 Rationale ……………………..………...…….………………...…...…….........19 1.4 Introducing my conceptual framework ……………………………...….....…...22 1.5 The dilemma in past literature ……………………………….………...........…23 1.6 Thesis Overview ……………………………………...………………..…....…24 1.7 Conclusion ………………………...…………...……...…..…..….…….…….. 26 Chapter 2 Context of Study 27 2.1 Samoa’s geographical & geopolitical composition ……………..…….….…... 27 2.2 A brief history of genealogy and pre-colonial contact legacy…..……...…....... 28 2.3 The missionaries and new power………………………….........…................... 30 2.4 Colonial legacy and imperial power …………………………………..….........33 2.4.1 German rule (1900-1914) ……………………………………..….….…..…..34 2.4.2 New Zealand Administration (1914-1953) ……………………………...…...35 2.5 Local governments ………………………………….……..………....…......….36 2.5.1 Village authority ……………………………………..…….….......………....36 2.5.2 Church government ………………………………..……….…...………........37 2.6 National Development: General overview ………………….…………..…..….38 2.7 Current state of relations ……………………………………..……...............…40 2.8 Conclusion ……………………………………….……..………...…….…...….41 Chapter 3 The Methodology 42 3.1 Mixed methods research…………………………….……….….……........…....42 3.1.1 The interviews …………………………………..………….………......….....44 3.1.2 Case Studies …………………………………………………...……….…….44 3.1.3 Fa’afaletui method …………………………………………….......……....…45 3.1.4 Document analysis ………………………………….……………..……....…46 P a g e | 4 3.1.5 General observations …………………………………………..………....…47 3.2 Data collation and analysis ………………………...……………….…........... 47 3.2.1 Thematic Analysis …………………………………………....….…....…… 47 3.2.2 Fairclough’s Analytic Procedure …………………………….……......…….48 3.3 Participants & Questions ………………………..……….............…................50 3.4 The ethics procedure …………………………….……………..…..…......….. 52 3.5 Conclusion………………………….………..……........................……...........52 Chapter 4 Theoretical framework & review of literature 53 4.1 (Part 1) A critical and collaborative framework ……….……...…….......…….53 4.1.1 Critical theory (CT) …………………………………………….….....….….54 4.1.2 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) ……………………………...............….55 4.2 Gramsci & cultural hegemony …………………………………………..........56 4.2.1 Role of ideology ……………………………………...……….……..…...…58 4.2.2 Relationship between ideology and social order ………….…….............…..59 4.3 Bourdieu’s contribution …………………………………………….…...….…60 4.3.1 Bourdieu’s theory of habitus ……………………………………..…...…......60 4.3 2 Bourdieu’s theory of capital ………………………………………..…......…61 4.3.3 Bourdieu’s theory of symbolic power …………………………..….…….….63 4.4 Michel Foucault …………………………………………….........…….….......64 4.4.1 Foucaultian Discourse Analysis …………………………………..…………64 4.4.2 Biopolitics & biopower ……………………………………...………….…...65 4.4.3 On power and its constitution …………………………………...…..............66 4.4.4 Power and knowledge ……………………………………………..….……..67 4.4.5 Foucault and power relations ……………………………………..…............69 4.4.6 Power and resistance ……………………………………….……..…...........70 4.5 (Part 2). The concepts of power and state …………………...………..............72 4.5.1 The three models of power analysis ……………………………....…...…....72 4.5.2 The power concept: a historical overview …………………….....……….…73 4.6 The State ……………………………………….…….…………..…................81 4.6.1 Rationale of a state ………………………………….………….…………...81 4.6.2 The ethics of governance ………………………………….………..…........82 4.6.3 The idea of a strong state …………………………………………..….........82 4.6.4 The state in society ……………………………………….………..….....…83 4.6.5 State responsibility …………………………………………..……..…........84 4.7 Democratic aspiration & modern situation ……………………..….................85 4.8 (Part 3): Samoan research and reference on power ……………….................87 4.9 The gaps of the literature ………………………………………..…..…...…...92 4.10 Conclusion ………………………………………………………..................93 P a g e | 5 Chapter 5 Indigenous concepts of Samoa’s power narrative 94 5.1 Aiga ………………………………………...…............................................….94 5.2 Fāiā ………………………………………………..……...............….….....…..96 5.3 Va ………………………………………………..…………………….........…97 5.4 Fa’ataualofa ………………………………………..………………….…..….100 5.5 Tua’oi ………………………………………………..……...…………......... 101 5.6 Pule ………………………………………………………….…….……........102 5.7 A new power configuration …………………………………...….……..……103 5.8 Soālaupule ……………………………………….………..…………..…...…104 5.9 Malo …………………………………………………….…..….……...…..... 106 5.10 Mana …………………………………………………..……………......…..109 5.11 Tapu …………………………………………………………..……....…….111 5.12 Fa’amatai ……………………………………………….…….………..….. 113 5.13 Matai ideology: an ethnohistorical overview ……………….……...…...….115 5.14 Tautua ………………………………………………………………..…......117 5.15 Aganuu (fa’aSamoa) ………………………………………………..…....... 119 5.16 Fa’asinomaga ………………………………………..……...….……..….…120 5.17 Fa’alupega ………………………………………………..…….…...............120 5.18 Conclusion ……………………………………...…………....………..........122 Chapter 6 Contemporary Samoan Democracy 123 6.1 Political spheres of influence ………………………………………..….........123 6.2 Parliamentary democracy and legislative power …………………….…....…125 6.3 Judiciary and disciplinary power ………………………………………........ 128 6.4 Executive and instrumental power ………………………………..….............131 6.5 Political parties and power politics ………………………………........…......133 6.6 Political advocacy and mitigating power …………………………..…...…....135 6.7 Opposition and counterpower …………………………….………….............137 6.8 Conclusion …………………...………………………….…...........................139 Chapter 7 The Human Rights Protection Party 141 7.1 Organisation and ethos …………………………………………….….......… 141 7.2 A brief history …………………………………………….……….…..…..... 142 7.3 Activating power: new style of leadership ………………………..…...…….144 7.4 Tofilau Eti Alesana ………………………………………………..…….…...146 7.5 Consolidating power through policy imposition ……………………….....…155 7.5.1 Economic strategy………………………………………..……….….….....155 7.5.2 Political strategy…………………………………………………...….…....159 P a g e | 6 7.5.3 Social development ……………………………………………..….….…...162 7.5.3.1 Health …………………………………………………………………….163 7.5.3.2 Education ……………………………………………………………...…166 7.6 Conclusion …………………..………...……………………….….….….…..168 Chapter 8 Power diffusion and intersections: village, church and civil society 170 8.1 Village government ………………………………………………….....…….171 8.1.1 The Village Fono Act 1990 ……………………………………….……......174 8.1.2 Challenges to village authority ……………………………….……………175 8.1.2.1 Splitting matai titles …………………………………..........................….175 8.1.2.2 The power of money……………………………………..………….........176 8.1.2.3 Alleviation measures …………………………………….………..….......177 8.1.2.4 Partisan politics …………………………………….…..………...…....…178 8.1.2.5 New churches …………………………….……………………..….….....179 8.1.2.6 Gender and power in the village ……………………………...…..….......179 8.1.2.7 Rights-based values & fundamental rights ………….……...……..…......180 8.2 The Church …………………………………………………….…….….…....181 8.2.1 Composition and power diffusion …………………………………...……..181 8.2.2 Church relations and power………………………………….....………..…183 8.2.3 The village power model and church authority ……………..............……..185 8.2.4 New power configuration ……………………………..…………….......…187 8.2.5 Church power configuration and organisational ethos ………..….......…....190 8.2.5.1 Ekalesia Faapotopotoga Kerisiano i Samoa (EFKS) …….……..…..........191 8.2.5.2 Ekalesia Metotisi i Samoa ………………………………..…..........…......192 8.2.5.3 Katoliko Roma ……………………………….....…………………..........193 8.2.6 Power relations in the Church …………………………………….........…..194 8.2.7 Church and State relations ………………………………………….….......197 8.3 Media power and Samoan society ……………..……………………….…....200 8.3.1 State of Samoa’s media & communication ……………………....…...…...200 8.3.2 The role of critical media ………………………………………………......201 8.3.3 Some personal observations ………………………….……………..….......202 8.4 Political Pressure groups & NGOs ……………………………………...........206 8.5 Conclusion ……………………………………...…...……………...…...……208