NEGOTIATING IDENTITIES AND ‘SENSE OF PLACE’ IN A WORLD HERITAGE CITY: THE CASE OF GEORGE TOWN, PENANG, MALAYSIA. by AIDATUL FADZLIN BAKRI A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Ironbridge International Institute of Cultural Heritage School of History and Cultures College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham October 2018 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT World Heritage designation which focuses on buildings and monuments frequently belies the complexities of human interaction with these structures and how this interaction changes over time. This study examines the interplay between local communities and the spaces and structures of the World Heritage Site of George Town, Malaysia. In the city of George Town, inscribed on the World Heritage List in part, for its tangible multicultural heritage and in recognition of its intangible heritage, I conducted work that problematised the relationships between its local communities and the postcolonial heritages they inhabit. Using grounded theory and employing observational work and semi-structured interviews, I explored how local communities construct and negotiate their own spaces and ‘sense of place’ within, but often disconnected from, the larger codified framework of the city’s ‘official’ heritage designation. Through various interpretative ‘frames’ I show how identities are forged more through intangible practices and traditions than through tangible heritage markers. I also determine how the multicultural communities within the World Heritage Site are caught up in power struggles at various levels, which reflect back on the ways in which they seek to claim and use their own senses of place. ‘For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease. Indeed, with hardship [will be] ease.’ (Al Quran, Surah Ash-Sharh : 5-6) To my parents, my husband and my three kids. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. All praises to Allah for the strengths and blessing You have given me in completing this thesis. It is a great pleasure to thank all who have supported to make the thesis completion possible. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Mike Robinson and Dr Helle Jørgensen for their guidance and support throughout the PhD journey. Thank you for believing in me. Sincere thanks to all the research participants who have given good cooperation and valuable data during the interview session, and sharing your life stories with me. My thanks go to colleagues and staffs in the Ironbridge International Institute of Cultural Heritage, University of Birmingham with whom have given encouragements throughout this programme. I am also thankful to Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) for the scholarship and Universiti Teknologi MARA for allowing me to take a study leave to pursue my dreams. Lastly, my greatest appreciation goes to my family for their sacrifices, unconditional love and undivided support. To my husband, I cannot possibly go through this journey without you by my side. The experience of living in the foreign land is challenging but very meaningful for our family. Sincere thanks too to all my friends and to those who have indirectly contributed to this research, your kindness means a lot to me. For conventions of language, grammar and spelling, I would like to thank Diane Bowden for proofreading this thesis and offering useful comments. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background of Study ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Rationale of the Study.......................................................................................... 4 1.1.1 Lack of understanding on the relationship between tangible and intangible heritage values ............................................................................................. 5 1.1.2 The need to understand the way local communities give meanings and values to the cultural heritage at the WHS .................................................. 6 1.1.3 Insufficient research that looks into the complexity of space at the WHS .. 9 1.2 Research Aim and Objectives ............................................................................ 11 1.3 Overall Research Methodology ......................................................................... 13 1.4 The Context of the Study ................................................................................... 14 1.5 Outline of Thesis ................................................................................................ 16 1.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................. 19 2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 19 2.1 Heritage as a Concept ........................................................................................ 20 2.1.1 Cultural heritage values.............................................................................. 25 2.2 The Relationship between Tangible and Intangible Heritage Values ................ 28 2.3 The Spaces of Cultural Heritage ........................................................................ 31 2.3.1 Lived space and thirdspace ........................................................................ 32 2.4 Place as Social Construct ................................................................................... 35 2.5 Sense of Place .................................................................................................... 37 2.5.1 Identity and images .................................................................................... 37 2.5.2 Sense of belonging, place attachment, ownership and stewardship .......... 39 2.5.3 Authenticity and significance ..................................................................... 41 2.5.4 Process ....................................................................................................... 43 2.5.5 Relating sense of place to the theory of habitus ......................................... 45 2.6 Bodily Attachment to Space and Place .............................................................. 47 2.6.1 Spatial orientation ...................................................................................... 49 2.6.2 The act of walking ...................................................................................... 51 2.6.3 The body in relation to material and imaginary space ............................... 52 2.7 Framing of Space and Place............................................................................... 53 2.7.1 Space and power relations .......................................................................... 55 2.7.2 Mediating power in social space ................................................................ 58 2.8 Postcolonialism .................................................................................................. 60 2.8.1 Space as the site of colonial encounters ..................................................... 62 2.8.2 Postcolonial heritage .................................................................................. 66 2.9 Multicultural Identity ......................................................................................... 69 2.10 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 71 CHAPTER 3 .................................................................................................................. 73 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 73 3.2 Background of George Town, Penang ............................................................... 73 3.2.1 Geographical location ................................................................................ 74 3.2.2 Population demographics ........................................................................... 75 3.2.3 Urban morphology and settlement pattern ................................................. 77 3.2.4 Socioeconomic structure ............................................................................ 82 3.2.5 The multicultural identity ........................................................................... 83 3.3 Heritage and Conservation Movements in Penang ............................................ 87 3.3.1 Journey towards the World Heritage status ............................................... 89 3.3.2 Attributes of the Outstanding Universal Value .......................................... 90 3.3.3 World Heritage Site boundary ..................................................................