Forest Perspectives 3 Justice in the forest Justice Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) has been justified as a way of benefiting the poor by improving state revenues from forests, but the direct social impacts have not been given much attention. This study constitutes an attempt to fill the gap. Based on reviews of community experiences in Bolivia, Cameroon, Canada, Honduras, Indonesia and Nicaragua, it shows how the extent of forest-based livelihoods is often under- appreciated. The laws that affect the way people use forests are often contradictory and restrict livelihoods. Moreover, laws tend to be selectively developed and applied in favour of large-scale forestry, while laws, which secure community rights in forests, enforcement law forest and livelihoods Rural are commonly absent, ignored or too onerous to be widely used. Lack of adequate legal protection of community rights makes much small-scale forest use ‘illegal’. Illegal forest use, including by communities, tends to be enmeshed in wider political economies, so major players tend to be politically protected while local communities are vulnerable. Enforcement has sometimes focused narrowly on forestry laws to the neglect of laws that secure rural livelihoods. Crude enforcement measures have reinforced social exclusion and tended to target poor people while avoiding those who are well connected. Trade-based FLEG measures may also ignore the social implications. The study recommends future FLEG initiatives be developed in transparent ways, with broad civil society engagement. They should give special attention to the rural poor by addressing the full range of laws relating to forests, adopting rights-based approaches and promoting legal reform, rule of law and access to justice. Forest Perspectives are published to promote discussion and debate on key forest issues. They are published by CIFOR as a service to encourage dialogue and information exchange among the international forest community. Electronic versions can be Justice in the forest downloaded from CIFOR’s web site (www.cifor.cgiar.org). Rural livelihoods and forest law enforcement Marcus Colchester with Marco Boscolo, Arnoldo Contreras-Hermosilla, Filippo Del Gatto, Jessica Dempsey, Guillaume Lescuyer, Krystof Obidzinski, Denis Pommier, Michael Richards, Colchester, M. Colchester, Sulaiman N. Sembiring, Luca Tacconi, Maria Teresa Vargas Rios and Adrian Wells et al. The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) is a leading international forestry research organization established in 1993 in response to global concerns about the social, environmental, and economic consequences of forest loss and degradation. CIFOR is dedicated to developing policies and technologies for sustainable use and management of forests, and for enhancing the well-being of people in developing countries who rely on tropical forests for their livelihoods. CIFOR is one of the 15 Future Harvest centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). With headquarters in Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR has regional offices in Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon and Zimbabwe, and it works in over 30 other countries around the world. Donors The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) receives its major funding from governments, international development organizations, private foundations and regional organizations. In 2005, CIFOR received financial support from Australia, Asian Development Bank (ADB), Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), Cordaid, Conservation International Foundation (CIF), European Commission, Finland, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Ford Foundation, France, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Indonesia, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), Israel, Italy, The World Conservation Union (IUCN), Japan, Korea, Netherlands, Norway, Netherlands Development Organization, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Peruvian Secretariat for International Cooperation (RSCI), Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Switzerland, Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape, The Overbrook Foundation, The Nature Conservancy (TNC), Tropical Forest Foundation, Tropenbos International, United States, United Kingdom, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Bank, World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Forest Perspectives 3 Justice in the forest Rural livelihoods and forest law enforcement Justice being taken away, then what are kingdoms but great robberies? St Augustine, The City of God Marcus Colchester with Marco Boscolo, Arnoldo Contreras-Hermosilla, Filippo Del Gatto, Jessica Dempsey, Guillaume Lescuyer, Krystof Obidzinski, Denis Pommier, Michael Richards, Sulaiman N. Sembiring, Luca Tacconi, Maria Teresa Vargas Rios and Adrian Wells Disclaimer: The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position or policy of CIFOR. National Library of Indonesia Cataloging-in-Publication Data Colchester, M. et al. Justice in the forest: Rural livelihoods and forest law enforcement/ by Marcus Colchester with Marco Boscolo, Arnoldo Contreras- Hermosilla, Filippo Del Gatto, Jessica Dempsey, Guillaume Lescuyer, Krystof Obidzinski, Denis Pommier, Michael Richards, Sulaiman N. Sembiring, Luca Tacconi, Maria Teresa Vargas Rios and Adrian Wells. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2006. 98p. ISBN 979-24-4618-4 1. forestry law 2. rural communities 3. livelihoods 4. governance 5. illicit felling 6. socioeconomics 7. guidelines 8. case studies 9. Bolivia 10. Cameroon 11. Canada 12. Honduras 13. Nicaragua 14. Indonesia I. title © 2006 by CIFOR All rights reserved. Published in 2006 Printed by Indonesia Printer Cover photo by Christian Cossalter Published by Center for International Forestry Research Jl. CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindang Barang Bogor Barat 16680, Indonesia Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org Contents Abbreviations and acronyms iv Acknowledgements vii Preface viii Executive Summary x 1. Global forest law enforcement initiatives: the context for this study 1 2. Implications for rural livelihoods: the rationale for this study 5 3. Forests and livelihoods 9 4. Legal frameworks 16 5. Setting the frameworks 23 6. The political economy of illegal forest use 33 7. Livelihoods, law and illegality 38 8. Experiences with enforcement 47 9. Ways forward 62 Endnotes 71 References 78 Appendix: Comments from the province of British Columbia 94 iii Abbreviations and acronyms AAC annual allowable cut AFH Agenda Forestal Hondureña AFLEG Application des Legislation Forestières et la Gouvernement en Afrique AIDESEP Asociación Interétnica de Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana (Peru) AMAN Aliansi Masyarakat Adat Nusantara (Indonesia) Anon. Anonymous ARD Associates in Rural Development (USA) BC, B.C. British Columbia (Canada) BROC Bureau for Regional Oriental Campaigns (NGO, Russia) C$ Canadian dollars CD-ROM compact disk – read-only memory CED Centre pour l’Environnement et le Développement CEO chief executive officer cf. compare CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAD Centre International d’Appui au Développement Durable CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research DC District of Columbia (USA) DEA Drug Enforcement Administration (USA) DFID Department for International Development (UK) DPRD Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (Regional People’s Representative Assembly, Indonesia) ed. editor eds. Editors e.g. for example EIA Environmental Investigation Agency (UK) ELSAM Lembaga Studi dan Advokasi Masyarakat (Institute for Policy Research and Advocacy, Indonesia) ENA-FLEG Europe and North Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance etc. etcetera, ‘and so on’ EU European Union EUCAMP East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (Tanzania) FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations iv FCMP Forest Conservation and Management Project (Tanzania) FERN Forests and the European Union Resource Network FLEG forest law enforcement and governance FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade FoE Friends of the Earth International FSC Forest Stewardship Council FWI Forest Watch Indonesia GDP gross domestic product GEF Global Environment Facility GFW Global Forest Watch GoT Government of Tanzania GPS Global Positioning System ha hectare(s) HKm Hutan Kemasyarakatan ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada) IHSA Institut Hukum Sumberdaya Alam (Indonesia) IICA Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación en la Agricultura (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture) IISD International Institute for Sustainable Development ILO International Labour Organization IMF International Monetary Fund Inc. Incorporated INET Indigenous Network on Economies and Trade (Canada) INSAN Institut Analisa Sosial (Institute of Social Analysis, Malaysia) IRENA Instituto de Recursos Naturales (Institute for Natural Resources, Nicaragua) ITTC International Tropical Timber Council ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization IUCN The World Conservation Union LLC limited liability company Ltd Limited company