About the Authors Mahmoud Hamad holds a joint appointment as an assistant professor of politics and international relations at both Drake University (USA) and Cairo University (Egypt). His teaching and research interests focus on Middle East politics, com- parative judicial politics, civil–military relations, as well as religion and politics. His most recent publication is Egypt’s Litigious Transition: Judicial Intervention and the Muddied Road to Democracy (Atlantic Council, May 2013). He is the author of Generals and Judges in the Making of Modern Egypt (forthcoming). Khalil al-Anani is a senior fellow at the Middle East Institute. He is an expert on Islamist movements, Egyptian politics, and democratization in the Middle East. He was a visiting fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, DC, and a senior scholar at Al-Ahram Foundation in Cairo. He is the author of many books in both Arabic and English, including Unpacking the Muslim Brotherhood: Religion, Identity, and Politics (forthcoming). Nathan J. Brown is a nonresident senior associate in the Carnegie Endowment’s Middle East Program. He is a professor of political science and international affairs at George Washington University, and a distinguished scholar and author of six well-received books on Arab politics. Brown brings his special expertise on Islamist movements, Palestinian politics, and Arab law and constitutionalism to the Endowment. Brown’s latest book, When Victory Is Not an Option: Islamist Movements and Semiauthoritarianism in the Arab World, was published by Cornell University Press in early 2012. His current work focuses on Islamist movements and their role in politics in the Arab world. Mohamed Daadaoui is an associate professor of Political Science at Oklahoma City University. He is the author of Moroccan Monarchy and the Islamist Chal- lenge: Maintaining Makhzen Power (Palgrave, 2011). Daadaoui is author of a blog on Maghreb/North African politics called Maghreb Blog: http://maghreblog. blogspot.com. Vincent Durac lectures in the School of Politics and International Relations in University College Dublin and is a visiting lecturer in Bethlehem University, Palestine. He is co-author of Civil Society and Democratization in the Arab World and has published articles in a number of journals including the British Journal 224 A BOUT THE A UTHORS of Middle Eastern Studies, Mediterranean Politics,andtheJournal of North African Studies. Kevin Koehler is a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of War Studies, King’s College, London. His research focuses on different regime trajectories in the Arab Spring with special attention to political–military relations as well as party building and electoral politics. Manal Omar serves as director of Iraq, Iran, and North Africa Programs at the Center for Conflict Management at USIP. Previously, she was regional program manager for the Middle East for Oxfam, Great Britain, where she responded to humanitarian crises in Palestine and Lebanon. Omar has extensive experience in the Middle East. She worked with the Women for Women International as the regional coordinator for Afghanistan, Iraq, and Sudan. Omar’s activities have been profiled by the Washington Times,theLos Angeles Times, the BBC, NPR, Glamour,theLondon Times,andNewsweek. Her articles and opinion pieces have appeared in the Guardian,theWashington Post, Azizah Magazine,andIslamica Magazine. Hesham Sallam is a doctoral candidate in government at Georgetown University and co-editor of Jadaliyya ezine (www.Jadaliyya.com). He is currently a fellow at the Center on Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law at Stanford University. Sallam is former program specialist at the US Institute of Peace. His research focuses on Islamist movements and the politics of economic reform in the Arab World. Sallam’s research has previously received the support of the Social Science Research Council and the US Institute of Peace. Past institutional affil- iations include Middle East Institute, Asharq Al-Awsat, and the World Security Institute. Kıvanç Ulusoy is an associate professor of Politics at the Istanbul University. He was previously a Fulbright Fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School (2012– 2013) and Jean Monnet Fellow at the European University Institute in Florence (2003–2004) and Fellow at the Madrid Diplomatic School (1996–1997). His areas of research include regime change and democratization, Turkish politics and Turkey-EU relations, and Spanish politics. One of his recent publications is “The European Impact on State-Religion Relations in Turkey: Political Islam, Alevis and Non-Muslim Minorities,” Australian Journal of Political Science, 46:3, (2011). Reidar Visser is a research fellow at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs. He holds a doctorate in middle-eastern studies from the University of Oxford. He specializes in the history of the state system of the modern Middle East, regionalist movements, the politics of city states, and historiography in pol- itics. He is the author of Basra, The Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq (Lit-Verlag, 2005). A BOUT THE A UTHORS 225 Jana Warkotsch is a PhD researcher at the European University Institute in Florence. In her research she compares the dynamics of protest mobilization dur- ing the Arab Spring in Egypt and Tunisia from a historical political economy perspective. Luciano Zaccara is a visiting assistant professor at Georgetown University School of Foreign Service in Qatar; director at the Observatory on Politics and Elections in Arab and Muslim countries (OPEMAM), Spain; and honorary fellow at the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies, Exeter University, UK. He has a PhD in Arab and Islamic Studies, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Spain, and BA in Political Science, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Argentina. References Ahmad, Feroz. The Turkish Experiment in Democracy. London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Ahmad, Feroz. “The Political Economy of Kemalism,” In Ataturk Founder of a Modern State, edited by Ali Kazancıgil and Ergun Özbudun. London: Hurst, 1981. Ajami, Fouad. “The Arab Spring at One: A Year of Living Dangerously,” Foreign Affairs Vol. 91, No. 2, (2012), pp. 56–65. Akhavi, Shahrough.“Elite Factionalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” The Middle East Journal Vol. 41, No. 2, (1987), pp. 181–201. Albrecht, Holger. “How Can Opposition Support Authoritarianism? Lessons from Egypt,” Democratization Vol. 12, No. 3, (2005),pp. 378–397. Alem, Yasmin. Duality by Design: The Iranian Electoral System. Washington: International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), 2011. Allal, Amin, and Vincent Geisser. “La Tunisie de l’après-Ben Ali: Les partis poli- tiques à la recherche du « peuple introuvable »,” Culture et Conflits Vol. 83, No. 3, (2011),pp. 118–125. Alvarez, Mike, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski. “Classifying Political Regimes,” Studies in Comparative International Develop- ment Vol. 31, No. 2, (1996), pp. 3–36. Angrist, Michele Penner. “Parties, Parliament and Political Dissent in Tunisia,” The Journal of North African Studies Vol. 4, No. 4, (1999), pp. 89–104. Angrist, Michele Penner. “Party Systems and Regime Formation in the Mod- ern Middle East: Explaining Turkish Exceptionalism,” Comparative Politics Vol. 36, No. 2, (2004), pp. 229–249. Asli Ü. Bali, “The Perils of Judicial Independence: Constitutional Transition and the Turkish Example,” Virginia Journal of International Law Vol. 52, No. 2, (February 2012)pp. 235–320. Ayache, Germain. Etudes d’Histoire Marocaine: société marocaine des éditeurs réunis. Rabat: SMER, 1983. Ayata, Sencer. “Patronage, Party and State: The Politicization of Islam in Turkey,” Middle East Journal Vol. 50, No.1, (1996), pp. 40–56. Ayeb, Habib. “Social and Political Geography of the Tunisian Revolution: The Alfa Grass Revolution,” Review of African Political Economy Vol. 38, No. 129, (2011), pp. 467–479. 228 R EFERENCES Baaklini, Abdo I., Guilain Denoeux, and Robert Springborg. Legislative Politics in the Arab World: The Resurgence of Democratic Institutions. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999. Batatu, Hanna. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movement in Iraq. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978. Beaulieu, Emily and Susan D. Hyde. “In the Shadow of Democracy Promo- tion: Strategic Manipulation, International Observers, and Election Boycotts,” Comparative Political Studies Vol. 42, No. 3, (2009), pp. 392–415. Be’eri, Eliezer. “A Note on Coups d’etat in the Middle East,” Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 5, No. 2, (1970), pp. 123–129. Bellin, Eva. “The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective,” Comparative Politics Vol. 36, No. 2, (2004), pp. 139–157. Ben Néfissa, Sarah. “Trajectoires transitionnelles et élections en Tunisie et en Égypte,” Confluences Méditerranée Vol. 82, No. 3, (2012), pp. 9–27. Bermeo, Nancy. “Review: Rethinking Regime Change,” Comparative Politics Vol. 22, No. 3, (1990), pp. 359–377. Bermeo, Nancy. “Myth of Moderation, Confrontation and Conflict Dur- ing Democratic Transitions,” Comparative Politics Vol. 29, No. 3, (1997), pp. 305–322. Bjornlund, Eric C. Beyond Free and Fair: Monitoring Elections and Building Democracy. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2004. Blaydes, Lisa. Competition Without Democracy: Elections and Distributive Poli- tics in Mubarak’sEgypt. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Blaydes, Lisa, and James Lo. “One Man, One Vote, One Time? A