Forging pathways to sustainable food systems and rural poverty reduction: Insights from a social and economic value chain analysis of aquaculture in the Bolivian Amazon by Sean Michael Irwin M.R.D., Brandon University, 2012 M.I.T., University of Saskatchewan, 2011 B.A., University of Manitoba, 2005 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Geography University of Victoria © Sean Michael Irwin, 2018 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Forging pathways to sustainable food systems and rural poverty reduction: Insights from a social and economic value chain analysis of aquaculture in the Bolivian Amazon by Sean Michael Irwin M.R.D., Brandon University, 2012 M.I.T., University of Saskatchewan, 2011 B.A., University of Manitoba, 2005 Supervisory Committee Dr. Mark Flaherty, Supervisor Department of Geography Dr. Aleck Ostry, Departmental Member Department of Geography Dr. Joachim Carolsfeld, Outside Member World Fisheries Trust ii Abstract Increasing the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of food systems while making them productive enough to feed a future global population of 9 billion is one of the most significant challenges facing humanity. Aquaculture is touted as a food system that can make a profound contribution to this challenge, but much more research is needed to understand how it can develop sustainably. In central Bolivia, an aquaculture system is emerging that is generating opportunities for empowerment, food security, and poverty reduction. However, pathways that lead to the capture of these opportunities while avoiding challenges are not well defined. It is also unclear how the trajectory of growth can be supported so that aquaculture in the region can sustainably contribute to rural development. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to determine how rural small-scale aquaculture systems can contribute to food production while also being environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable. To do so, a new holistic value chain analysis that incorporates horizontal linkages (gender, food security, poverty analysis, and socio-political context) was developed and utilized. It included semi-structured interviews with 40 central Bolivian aquaculture producers, 40 farmers who did not produce aquaculture fish, 26 people employed in the aquaculture value chain, and 18 aquaculture system key informants. The study found that aquaculture in central Bolivia tends to have a positive effect on system participants and has a low environmental impact. It also identified improvements that the system could make to improve its productivity and sustainability. Beyond the central Bolivian aquaculture system specifically, the research makes an important and valuable contribution to knowledge by identifying and explaining the linkages between local and regional food systems in the global South, and sustainable development outcomes. This research provides insight for development researchers and practitioners looking to improve the productivity and sustainability of aquaculture systems. This research also improves our understanding of how food system development can generate empowerment, food security, and poverty reduction more broadly. iii Table of Contents Supervisory Committee .................................................................................................................. ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................................. iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. iv List of Tables .................................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. viii List of Photos ..................................................................................................................................... ix Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................ xi Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Nature of the Problem .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 8 1.3 Thesis Outline ............................................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2: Background ........................................................................................................ 10 2.1 Food Systems ............................................................................................................................ 10 2.1.1 Local Food Systems .......................................................................................................................... 19 2.1.2 Food Sovereignty ............................................................................................................................... 24 2.1.3 Navigating the “Modification” and “Alternative” Approaches ....................................... 29 2.2 Aquaculture Systems ............................................................................................................. 31 2.2.1 Aquaculture and the Environment ............................................................................................ 35 2.2.2 Aquaculture and Rural Development ....................................................................................... 37 2.2.3 Forging Pathways to Sustainable Aquaculture .................................................................... 47 2.3 Value Chains ............................................................................................................................. 48 2.3.1 Horizontal Linkages ......................................................................................................................... 52 2.3.2 Holistic Value Chains Analysis ..................................................................................................... 56 2.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 58 Chapter 3: Bolivia .................................................................................................................. 60 3.1 The Evolution of a Rich and Poor Country ...................................................................... 60 3.1.1 Cultural Diversity and Conflict .................................................................................................... 61 3.1.2 Neoliberalism and Resistance in Bolivia ................................................................................. 65 3.1.3 Coca, Indigeneity, and National Sovereignty ......................................................................... 71 3.1.4 The Rise of Indigenous and Socialist Politics ........................................................................ 76 3.2 The Socio-Political Continuity and Change .................................................................... 78 3.2.1 The Morales Government’s Policies and Priorities for Development ........................ 79 3.2.2 Social Development .......................................................................................................................... 83 3.2.3 Economic Development .................................................................................................................. 87 3.2.4 Shifting from Governance from Above to Governance from Below ............................ 92 3.2.5 Rural Livelihoods and Development ........................................................................................ 98 3.2.6 Creating a Food Sovereign Nation .......................................................................................... 104 3.3 Aquaculture in Bolivia ......................................................................................................... 109 3.3.1 The Bolivian Fish Production System ................................................................................... 110 3.3.2 The Re-emergence of Aquaculture in Bolivia .................................................................... 114 3.3.3 Cultured Species ............................................................................................................................. 117 3.3.4 The Market for Aquaculture ...................................................................................................... 120 3.3.5 Research Context ............................................................................................................................ 126 3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................