The University of San Francisco USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library | Geschke Center Doctoral Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, Capstones and Projects 2008 Over the seas, over the generations : narratives of multigenerational Korean women in Japan and Japanese American women in the United States Kayoko Aoki Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.usfca.edu/diss Part of the Education Commons Recommended Citation Aoki, Kayoko, "Over the seas, over the generations : narratives of multigenerational Korean women in Japan and Japanese American women in the United States" (2008). Doctoral Dissertations. 153. https://repository.usfca.edu/diss/153 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, Capstones and Projects at USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library | Geschke Center. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of USF Scholarship: a digital repository @ Gleeson Library | Geschke Center. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The University of San Francisco OVER THE SEAS, OVER THE GENERATIONS: NARRATIVES OF MULTIGENERATIONAL KOREAN WOMEN IN JAPAN AND JAPANESE AMERICAN WOMEN IN THE UNITED STATES A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the School of Education International and Multicultural Education Department In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education by Kayoko Aoki San Francisco May 2008 This dissertation, written under the direction of the candidate’s dissertation committee and approved by the members of the committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. The content and research methodologies presented in this work represent the work of the candidate alone. Kayoko Aoki 6/17/08 Candidate Date Dissertation Committee Shabnam Koirala-Azad 6/17/08 Chairperson Dr. Susan Katz 5/8/08 Dr. Stephen J. Roddy 5/8/08 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v PREFACE vii CHAPTER I. RESEARCH PROBLEM Introduction 1 Statement of the Problem 7 Background and Need for the Study 8 Purpose of the Study 10 Research Questions 11 Theoretical Framework Ideological Hegemony 12 Feminist Theory 14 Identity 17 Delimitations and Limitations 20 Significance of the Study 21 Definition of Terms 22 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction 25 Double Myths: Homogeneity in Japan and Heterogeneity in the United States Homogeneity in Japan 27 Heterogeneity in the United States 31 Zainichi Koreans: Historical Background and Contemporary Issues The Emergence of Japanese Imperialism and Nationalism 34 Pre- and Post World War II 37 Citizenship and Naturalization 39 Korean Language Education 41 Names and Zainichi Koreans 43 Japanese Americans: Historical Background and Contemporary Issues Immigration Policies and American Nationalism 47 Pre World War II 51 Citizenship, Naturalization, and World War II 52 Post World War II 56 Education for Japanese American Students 58 Japanese Names 60 Women’s Voices: Research on Zainichi Korean and Japanese American Women 61 Summary 62 ii III. METHODOLOGY Research Design 64 Theoretical Background of the Research Methodology Feminist Oral History 65 Participatory Research Perspectives 66 The Relationship between the Researcher and Participants 67 The Relationship between Dialogue and Creating Knowledge 68 Research Setting 69 Selection of the Research Participants 69 Questions to Guide the Initial Dialogues 71 Data Collection First Dialogue 72 Second Dialogue 73 Data Analysis 74 Protection of Human Subjects 75 Research Participants 75 Zainichi Korean Women Mi Ja 76 Hong Ja 77 Yu Ja 78 Soon Ja 78 Japanese American Women Katherine 79 Motoko 80 Mrs. T 81 Background of the Researcher 82 IV. FINDINGS Introduction 86 Family Histories and the Memories of the First Generation Zainichi Korean Women in Japan Mi Ja 87 Hong Ja 88 Yu Ja 90 Soon Ja 92 Japanese American Women in the United States Katherine 94 Motoko 97 Mrs. T 99 Zainichi Korean Women in Japan Name: Korean Name, Japanese Name Mi Ja 103 Hong Ja 105 Soon Ja 108 Yu Ja 110 iii Growing up as Zainichi Korean in Japanese Schools and Society School Experiences 111 Post-secondary Experiences 116 Language: Learning Korean, Learning Heritage 122 Concepts of Nation, Naturalization, and National Identity 126 Representation in the Media: Invisibility and Distorted Images of Zainichi Koreans 132 Gender Roles and Identity 134 Expectations and Prospect for the Future Generations 139 Japanese American Women in the United States Name: Japanese Name, English Name Katherine 145 Mrs. T 149 Motoko 150 Growing up as Japanese American in American Schools and Society School Experiences 151 Internment Camp Experiences 154 Language: Growing up in a Bilingual Home 160 Concepts of National, Ethnic, and Cultural Identity 165 Gender: Identity as a Woman 172 Expectations and Prospect of the Future Generations 179 V. CONCLUSION Introduction 186 Comparison: Zainichi Korean and Japanese American Women Family History: “That is How My Mother’s Family Came” 188 Name: “I Am What I Am” 190 Educational Experiences 192 Language: “I Should Know My Own Language” 194 National, Ethnic, and Cultural Identity 195 Gender and Identity 198 Generation to Generation: “Remember Who You Are” 200 Implications for Equity in Education 202 Recommendations for Future Research 203 Reflection of the Researcher 205 REFERENCES 207 APPENDIXES A: List of Questions 217 B: Table: Participants 222 C: Researcher’s Journal 223 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This journey has been through a lot of emotions—emotions of my participants, my mother, my teachers, my family, my friends, and myself. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to all of women and men who were part of this study, which became a big part of my life. I feel grateful to have all these experiences which I could ever imagine before. I feel thankful that I could meet all those people who changed my life and supported what I wanted to do. I would like to dedicate this dissertation especially to my mother, Ryoko Aoki, for believing in me and supporting me from the beginning, when I was thinking about studying abroad when I was a freshman at a university in Japan. I would like to thank my father, Ryuzo Aoki, who also supported me, and my brother, Yasunori Aoki. Even though I lived apart from my family, they always gave me emotional support and a sense of connection. I would like to acknowledge each of my participants in this study for sharing her story, experiences, and deep feelings, and their families for their hospitality and kindness. I would also like to acknowledge the women who gave me the opportunities to meet my wonderful participants, Myo Ja Park, Yoo Kwi Shin, Diane Matsuda, and the Japanese Cultural and Community Center for Northern California. I would to express my gratitude to my chair, Dr. Shabnam Koirala-Azad, for guiding the process and support. I would like to acknowledge other committee members, Dr. Susan Katz and Dr. Stephen Roddy. I would also like to thank my English tutor Mary Burns, who always supported me emotionally and fed me sometimes as well. Special thanks to Dr. Jacquelyn Reza, for v responding to me and giving me advise and support whenever I needed it, Dr. Nobuko Shimazu, Dr. Uldis Kruze, Dr. Hwa Ji Shin, Dr. Miguel López, Dr. Kyoko Suda, and Dr. Yuko Okubo. My dear friends in Japan, the United States, South Korea, and Taiwan, Naoko Obara, Chieko Yamanaka, Ikuko Wada, Tamami Kokuryo, Yoko Koki, Kimiyoshi Inomata, Aaron Horn, Farbod Karimi, Araceli Osorio, Marianne Maurice Marar, Hsiao- chun (Jane) Chan, Yuji Ohara, Annie Chan, Hye Sun Lee, Yuka Kraft, and the wonderful IME students and graduates. Finally, I would like to express gratitude to all people who supported me and my family in Japan. 謝辞 この研究に参加・協力してくださったすべての女性に心より御礼申し上げ ます。この研究を通して出会えた方々、ご家族、そして紹介をしてくださった朴 妙子さん、申有貴さん、ダイアン・マツダさん、そして JCCCNC の方々に厚く 御礼申し上げます。 また、この論文を執筆するにあたって御指導を賜りましたシャブナム・コ イララ・アザッド教授、コミティ・メンバーのスーザン・キャッツ教授、スティ ーブン・ロディ教授に感謝申し上げます。 留学を考えていたときから最後までサポートしてくれた母、青木良子にこ の論文を捧げたいと思います。また私をサポートしてくれた父青木隆三と兄青木 康哲に感謝します。お母さん、お父さん、お兄ちゃん、ほんまにありがとう。 vi PREFACE When I go to the Golden Gate Bridge, I think of my home, Japan. Even though I cannot see it, I imagine, if I could go west, it would be Japan. Then I become emotional because as I look down at the water, I think of the first immigrants who came here from Japan by ship more than 140 years ago. As they passed through the gateway of the bay, what did they think? Did they think of Japan while looking at the beautiful sunset? Did they dream about success in the new land? I am here in the United States as a Japanese international student. After more than a five year stay, I have come to realize my “double consciousness” in the United States, and at the same time, the way I used to see the world was based on what I saw and heard in Japan. Like most Japanese in Japan, I had never knowingly encountered people with different ethnic backgrounds than mine when I was growing up in a rural town of Kyoto prefecture. Although I knew Japan was not a homogeneous country and wondered where and who “they” were, I never tried to find out actively or ask questions of teachers about the diversity in Japan because I also sensed this would make me face the dirty part of the Japanese history, the other “reality.” It felt like grabbing a cloud—it seemed I could see it, but never touch it. It was ironic that the first Korean Japanese friend I made, was Mi Ja, in Minnesota where I went as an exchange student in 2001. Because most Korean Japanese use Japanese names rather than Korean names, I might have met Korean Japanese before I met Mi Ja, but I would not have been able to tell. I remember when I first met her; I was surprised that she did not have a Japanese name.