Sept. 2015 Note some footnotes, notes and examples have been added since the publication in 1982. These are preceded by Ad. (additional). There are also additions to the Bibliography. PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Series B – No 84 THE SYNTAX AND MORPHIOLOGY OF THE VERB IN CHEPANG by Ross Charles Caughley Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series: SERIES A - Occasional Papers SERIES B Monographs SERIES C Books SERIES D Special Publications EDITOR: S.A. Wurm ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton EDITORIAL ADVISERS: B.W. Bender University of Hawaii David Bradley La Trobe University A. Capell University of Sydney Michael G. Clyne Monash University S.H. Elbert University of Hawaii K.J. Franklin Summer Institute of Linguistics W.W. Glover Summer Institute of Linguistics G.W. Grace University of Hawaii M.A.K. Halliday University of Sydney E. Haugen Harvard University A. Healey Summer Institute of Linguistics L.A. Hercus Australian National University Nguyen Bang Liêm University of Hawaii John Lynch University of Papua New Guinea K.A. McElhanon University of Texas H.P. McKaughan University of Hawaii P. Mulhlhausler Linacre College, Oxford G.N. O’Grady University of Victoria B.C. A.K. Pawley University of Auckland K.L. Pike University of Michigan; Summer Institute of Linguistics E.C. Polome University of Texas Gillian Sankoff University of Pennsylvania W.A.L. Stokhof National Center for Language Development, Jakarta; University of Leiden E.M. Uhlenbeck University of Leiden J.W.M. Verhaar Gonzaga University, Spokane All correspçndence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to: The Secretary PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University P.O. Box 4, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600 Australia. Copyright ® The Author First Published- 1982 Typeset by Mrs Judy Wise. Printed by A.N.U. Printing Service Covers by Patria Printers Bound by Adriatic Bookbinders Pty. Ltd. The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in the production of this series. This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund. National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 278 X (Piii) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations x Maps xiv CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1 1.1.1 . Location 1 1.1.2.Language Name 2 1.1.3. Population 3 1.1.4. History of Contact 3. 1.1.5 . Economy 5 1.1.6 . Trade 5 1.1.7.Social and Political Organisation 5 1.1.8. Religion 6 1.1.9. Previous Studies 6 1.1.10.Source of Data 8 1.1.11.Classification 8 1.1.12.Dialects 8 1.2. MOTIVATION AND SCOPE 10 1.3. THEORETICAL APPROACH 12 1.3.1. Functions of Speech 14 1.3.2. Requirements of Effective Comunieation 15 1.3.3. Functional Systems of Language 17 1.3.3.1. Modality 17 1.3.3.2. Referential Identification 17 1.3.3.3. Role Identification 18 1.3.3.4. Cohesion 21 l.3.3.5. Background and Deictic Information 32 1.3.4. Structure of the Work 33 1.4. OUTLINE OF PHONOLOGY 34 1.4.1. Phoneme Inventory 34 1.4.2. Phonetic Realisation 34 1.4.3. Tone and Stress 38 1.4.4. Vowel System 39 1.5. OUTLINE OF SYNTAX AND MORPHOLOGY 39 1.5.1. Typology 39 1.5.1.1.Order or Constituents 39 1.5.1.2.Morphological Typology 41 1.5.1.3.Functional Typology 42 1.5.1.4. Phonaesthetic Forms 44 1.5.2. Verb Types 46 1.5.3. Morphology 48 1.5.4. The Verb as a Unit 51 CHAPTER II: THE VERB IN RELATION TO CONTENT 53 2.1. REFERENTIAL INFORMATION 53 2.1.1. Verbal Cross-reference 53 2.1.2. Pronominal Categories 54 2.1.3. Reduplication 56 2.1.4. Double Cross-reference 56 2.1.5. Possessor Cross-reference 56 2.1.6. Choice for Cross-reference 57 2.2. THE VERB AND ROLE INFORMATION 57 2.2.1. Perspective Role Features 58 2.2.2. Role Encoding 58 2.2.3. The Relation of Perspective Cases to Semantic Roles 62 2.2.4. Variation of Perspective 66 2.2.5. Constraints on Choice of Perspective 69 2.2.6. Participant Addition and Reduction 71 2.2.7. Co-ordinate and Comitative Participants 74 2.2.8. Summary 75 2.3. SELECTION FOR CROSS-REFERENCE 75 2.3.1. Cross-reference and Perspective 75 2.3.2. Case 77 2.3.3. Communicative Role 77 2.3.4. Semantic Category (Animacy) 79 2.3.5. Pragmatic Factors 80 2.3.6. The Function of Cross-reference 82 CHAPTER III: THE VERB IN RELATION TO CONTEXT 83 3.1. INFORMATION FLOW 83 3.1.1. Introduction 83 3.1.2. Primary Functions - 83 3.1.3. Distribution and Secondary Functions 87 3.1.14.Pronominal Functions of -te? 89 3.2. MODAL FUNCTIONS 90 3.2.1. Declarative 90 3.2.1.1. Marking and Function 90 3.2.1.2. Emphatic Assertion 90 3.2.1.3. UncertaInty 92 3.2.1.4. HypothetIcal Statements 93 3.2.1.5. Necessltatives 94 3.2.1.6. Negation 95 3.2.1.7. Emotive Expression 97 3.2.2. Interrogative 98 3.2.3. Jusslve 100 3.2.3.1. Jussive Types 100 3.2.3.2. Imperatives 100 3.3. THE VERB AND THE CONTEXT OF UTTERANCE 104 3.3.1. Tense and Aspect 104 3.3.2. Aspectual Functions 105 3.3.3. Stative Situations 107 3.3.4. Auxiliary Roots and Aspect 107 3.3.5. Summary of Tense and Aspect Marking 110 3.3.6. Other Auxiliary Roots 112 3.3.7. Lexical Origins of the Auxiliary Roots 113 3.3.8. Reduplication and Aspect 113 CHAPTER IV: THE VERB AND COHESION 115 4.1. CROSS-REFERENCE AND COI{ESION 115 4.1.1. The NounPhrase {Participant} in Cross-reference: Subject, Topic or Theme? 115 4.1.2. Subject {or Passive} 116 4.1.3. Topic 119 4.1.14. Theme 120 4.1.5. PragmatIc Peak 121 4.1.6. Summary . 122 4.2. REDUCED CLAUSE HIERARCHIES AND INTERCLAUSAL RELATIONS 122 4.2.1. Reduced Clauses 122 4.2.2. Unreduced or Primary Clauses 123 4.2.3. Complex Predicate Hierarchy 124 4.2.3.1. Levels and Function 124 4.2.3.2. Secondary Clauses 124 4.2.3.3. Tertiary Clauses 126 4.2.3.4. Compound Verb Clauses {& Noun Incorporation} 128 4.2.3.5. The Complex Predicate Hierarchy: A Summary 129 4.2.4. Nouniness Hierarchy 130 4.2.4.1. Structure and Function 130 4.2.4.2. Nominalised Clauses 130 4.2.4.3. NomInal Compounds 136 4.2.4.4. The Nouniness Hierarchy: A Summary 137 4.2.5. Setting Hierarchy 138 4.2.5.1. JustifIcation 138 4.2.5.2. Repetitive Setting Clauses 138 4.2.5.3. Conditional Reduced Clauses 139 4.2.5.4. Resultatlve 141 4.2.5.5. Summary of Contrasts within the Setting Hierarchy 142 4.2.6. Interclausal Linking of Unreduced Clauses 142 (Contra-expectancy) CHAPTER V: THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRONOMINAL AFFIXATION 145 5.1. THEORIES OF DEVEL0PMENT 145 5.1.1. The Problem in Relation to Tibeto-Burman 145 5.1.2. Topic Shift and Afterthought Hypotheses 146 5.2. THE GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRONOMINAL AFPIXATION IN CHEPANG 147 5.2.1. Problems with the TS and AT Hypotheses 147 5.2.2. The Modified Topic Shift Proposal 148 5.2.3. The Explanatory Power of the MTS Hypothesis 154 5.2.4. General Features of the Paradigm in Relation toTS Hypotheses 158 5.2.4.1. Introductory 158 5.2.4.2. Double Cross-reference 158 5.2.4.3. Plural Reduplication 159 5.2.4.4. Verbal Case Marking 160 5.2.4.5. Possessive Cross-reference 162 5.2.4.6. Second Person Dual 163 5.2.4.7. Past Tense Forms 164 5.2.5. Summary of Topic Shift Hypotheses 165 5.3. ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT 165 5.3.1. General 165 5.3.2. Characterisation Clause Process 166 5.3.3. Possessive Analogy 167 5.14.. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEPANG PRONOMINAL SYSTEM IN DETAIL 168 5.4.1. PronomInal Elements and Rules of Change 168 5.4.1.1. Proposed Pronominal Group Elements 168 5.4.1.2. Proposed Order of Elements 169 5.4.1.3. Proposed Rules of Change 169 5.4.1.4. Ordering of Combinations and Changes 171 5.4.2. Examples of Development 172 5.4.2.1. Method 172 5.4.2.2. Free Pronouns 172 5.4.2.3. Development of Verbal Affixes 173 5.5. CONCLUSIONS 178 CHAPTER VI: COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY 181 6.1. INTRODUCTION 181 6.2. DIALECTS OF CHEPANG 182 6.2.1. General Discussion 182 6.2.2. Eastern Dialect 182 6.2.2.1. Northern Subdialect of Eastern Chepang 182 6.2.3. Western Dialect 184 6.2.3.1.General Features of Pronominal Affixation 184 6.2.3.2. BhujelI Subdialect 188 6.2.4 South-western Dialect 190 6.2.5. Summary 190 6.3. OTHER TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES 192 6.3.1. Types of Pronominal Systems 192 6.3.2. Comparison of Pronominal Systems 193 6.3.2.1. Classification 193 6.3.2.2.