Treated sewagewater use in irrigated agriculture Theoretical design of farming systems in Seil Al Zarqa and the Middle Jordan Valley in Jordan PROMOTOREN Prof. Dr. Ir. E.A. Goewie Hoogleraar Maatschappelijke Aspecten van de Biologische Landbouw Prof. dr. M. Shatanawi Dean of Faculty of Agriculture, Jordan University CO-PROMOTOR Dr. ir. F. P. Huibers Wetenschappelijk Hoofddocent, leerstoelgroep Irrigatie en waterbouwkunde SAMENSTELLING PROMOTIECOMMISSIE Prof. dr. ir. N. G. Röling Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. ir. L. Vincent Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. ir. G. Lettinga Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. M. Fayyad Director of Water and Environment Research and Study Centre, Jordan University 2 Mohammad M. Duqqah Treated sewagewater use in irrigated agriculture Theoretical design of farming systems in Seil Al Zarqa and the Middle Jordan Valley in Jordan Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van de Wageningen Universiteit, prof. dr. ir. L. Speelman, in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag, 3 december 2002 des namiddag’s om 16:00 uur in de Aula CIP-DATA KONINLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK, DEN HAAG Treated sewagewater use in irrigated agriculture: Theoretical design of farming systems in Seil Al Zarqa and the Middle Jordan Valley in Jordan Duqqah, M.M. Thesis Universiteit Wageningen, Wageningen, the Netherlands – With ref. – With summary in Dutch, English and Arabic – 262 pages. ISBN: 90-5808 No copyright. All parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without prior permission of the author, as long as the correct quotation is provided. The author would appreciate being notified ([email protected]). 4 This book is dedicated to my mother Though you are no longer here, your love and soul continue to surround and support me. 6 Acknowledgements The Qur’an says: ‘Proclaim! (or Read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created – Created man, out of a leech-like clot: Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful, He Who taught (the use of) the pen; taught man that which he knew not.’ (96:1-5). I am thankful to God for giving me the strength and ability to read and write which is the basis for the acquisition of knowledge and critical thinking for the benefit of mankind. This Ph.D. started as a part of the collaboration between the Department of Environmental Technology and the Department of Ecological Agriculture, Wageningen University, and the Water and Environment Research and Study Centre, Jordan University. I would like to thank the Dutch Government, which funded this study through the WASTEVAL project, for providing me with the opportunity to come and work here in order to finalise and submit the thesis. I am also thankful to the Water and Environment Research and Study Centre, Jordan University, which provided me with all the facilities necessary for carrying out the research in Jordan for three years. I would like to thank all those people who have contributed to, and supported me, in writing this book. Prof. Eric Goewie has been of great inspiration to me. His guidance and his huge network led to the study and acquisition of exciting perspectives that I then used to reflect upon my experiences. He has supported me in the challenge of writing a thesis based on four years’ experience. His questions and visits to my project site have been crucial to the shaping and structuring of my perspectives on the use of unconventional approaches in my study. I also thank the people of the former group of the Chair of Ecological Agriculture. They were of great help, stimulated me enormously, let me see how meaningful regular coffee breaks are and surrounded me with an atmosphere of ‘be at home’. It is a great pity that this group does not exist anymore. I could see the difference once I had to write my book: isolated and without the stimulating coffee discussions or colloquia. I would like to thank Prof. Mohammad Shatanawi for his support and for the pleasant academic atmosphere in Jordan. Through interesting discussions with Dr. Frans Huibers, I was able to sharpen my ideas and get feedback from a person with extensive knowledge and expertise in irrigation management and conservation. I would like to thank Dr. Jules van Lier, director of the WASTEVAL project, for arranging the funds for the study and for his kindness. Jules I owe you a lot. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Hans Schiere, who made the suggestion to ask Prof. Eric Goewie to act as supervisor of my Ph.D. studies, and furthermore for the constructive discussions and the memorable trips on which you took me. I am thankful to Mr. Arthur Eveleens, who took the responsibility of editing this thesis, also thank Mrs. H.E. Michel-Knaap and R.F. Michel for helping me in preparing the lay out of this book. Without her skills it never would have been possible to compensate the lack of time after het theft of my computer. I thank Heba Maqatef, for translating the summary into Arabic and Mr. Eddie de Bruin for making all drawings. I am indebted to the farmers in Siel Al Zarqa and the Middle Jordan Valley. Allowing me to participate in your struggle for life, sharing with me your experience and knowledge, and accepting me as a facilitator gave me a great opportunity to discover the different types of farming and styles of management. The knowledge and experience I obtained in the field was due to the collective effort of many people. I am very grateful to Wael Al Taweal, Basel and Gassan Al Weer, Abu Raád Al Mashakbeh, Abu Khalid and Abu Ali, farmers whose support throughout the journey of the research I shall never forget. My thanks also to Dr. Thefalah Badarneh, Dr. Mahfoth Abu Zant, Saqar Al Salem, Abed Al Wahab Matar, Bashar Al Shraedeh, Ilham Abu Aeshah, Yaser Nazal, Basel Sha’mon, Waled Joumah, and Andreas Kuck and Arthur Vallentin from the GTZ office at Jordan. I thank my wife, Ameera, for sharing the journey of developing this book with me. As partners forever, you have been a tremendous source of insight and inspiration. I thank you for expanding my understanding and career through your unflinching supprot. Even when I was away for a long periods, you showed great patience waiting my return. I thank my family, father, Mohab and Huda Duqqah, Ahmad and Afnan Jaber, Maher and Ilham Rsasi as well as the family of my wife, which has always supported me and extended its best wishes. Maram Saffarini, even though you are but eleven years old, your lovely calls encouraged me a lot. During my stay in Wageningen several friends helped me feel at home. Eric and Yvonne Goewie, Hans and Rinske Schiere, Jaap and Anemarie Vogelaar, Judith Kaspersma, Susanne Boom, Gijsbertje Berkhout and Francien de Jonge. When in need I could always count on your help. I am greatful to all of you for your support. I am also thankful to my colleagues Maha Halalsheh, Nedal Mahmoud, Ahmad Tawfik, Manal, Abed Al Malah, and Saeed Hussein. 8 Back home, I would like to thank the staff of the Water and Environment Research and Study Centre, Prof. Manar Fayyiad, director of the centre, Ghada Kasab, Mohammad Al Khateb and Thair Al Moumani. Samer Rukebat, thank you for helping me in laboratory analysis. Mahmoud Musleh, Shaker Arabieat and Nather Abu Hzeem thank you for driving me around any time I needed to be in the field. Effective fieldwork would have been impossible without the help of the whole staff. My thanks are extended to everyone who prayed for my success and my apologies to those whom I have failed to mention. These omissions are unintentional. Mohammad Duqqah December, 2002. 10 CONTENTS Preface 15 Chapter 1 - Introduction 17 1.1 The WASTEVAL programme as problem statement 19 1.2 Societal problem addressed 20 1.3 Structure of this book 21 1.4 Definitions 22 Chapter 2 - Water in Jordan 25 2.1 Jordan’s water resources 25 2.1.1 Surface water 25 2.1.2 Ground water 26 2.1.3 Sewagewater 26 2.2 Present use of water resources 27 2.2.1 Agricultural use 28 2.2.2 Urban areas and industry 33 2.3 Future use of water resources 34 2.3.1 Present balance 34 2.3.2 Scope for improving the water balance 36 2.3.3 Limiting factors for improving the water balance 38 2.4 Conclusion 39 Chapter 3 – Theoretical framework 41 3.1. Conclusion 44 Chapter 4 – Research questions 45 4.1 Identification of the research site and its pilot farms 46 4.2 Relation between farmers and researchers 46 4.3 Suitability of treated sewagewater as nutrient source for crops 46 4.4 Theoretical model of treated sewagewater using farms 46 4.5 Strengths and weaknesses of prototypes 47 4.6 Support by government policy 47 4.7 Conclusion 47 Chapter 5 – Suitable research sites 49 5.1 Objective 49 5.2 Methods 50 5.3 Results 50 11 5.3.1 Three research zones 51 5.3.2 Water quality in the zones 52 5.3.3 Farms and farmers in the zones 56 5.4 Conclusion 57 Chapter 6 – Farmers as designers of their own farms 59 6.1 Methods 60 6.2 Results 60 6.2.1 Learning from desk research 60 6.2.2 Collective decision-making 64 6.3 Conclusion 66 Chapter 7 – Suitability of treated sewagewater as nutrient source for crops 67 7.1 Suitability of treated sewagewater for irrigation 67 7.1.2 Water Electrical Conductivity (ECw ) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) 75 7.1.3 Specific ion toxicity 76 7.1.4 Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus (T-N and T-P) 78 7.1.5 Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), and pH 80 7.1.6 Microbiological quality 81 7.2 Water quality 83 7.3 Treated sewagewater as a resource 87 7.4 Salinisation 88 7.5 Conclusion 89 Chapter 8 – Designing of prototypes