‘ON AURAIT PENSÉ QUE LA NATURE S’ÉTAIT TROMPÉE EN LEUR DONNANT LEURS SEXES’: MASCULINE MALAISE, GENDER INDETERMINACY AND SEXUAL AMBIGUITY IN JULY MONARCHY NARRATIVES Géraldine Crahay A thesis submitted in fulfilments of the requirements for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy in French Studies Bangor University, School of Modern Languages and Cultures June 2015 i TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ix Declaration and Consent ........................................................................................................... xi Introduction: Masculine Ambiguities during the July Monarchy (1830‒48) ............................ 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Theoretical Framework: Masculinities Studies and the ‘Crisis’ of Masculinity ............................. 4 Literature Overview: Masculinity in the Nineteenth Century ......................................................... 9 Differences between Masculinité and Virilité ............................................................................... 13 Masculinity during the July Monarchy ......................................................................................... 16 A Model of Masculinity: The Napoleonic Soldier ........................................................................ 20 Periodisation and Corpus .............................................................................................................. 22 Thesis Overview ........................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 1: Sexual Dichotomy, Hermaphroditism and Male Homosexuality in Nineteenth- Century French Scientific Discourse ....................................................................................... 29 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 29 The Separation of the Sexes: Distinctions between Men and Women ......................................... 32 Characteristics of Hermaphroditism ............................................................................................. 41 Characteristics of Homosexuality ................................................................................................. 50 From Genitalia to Behaviour: The Determination of the Sex of an Individual ............................. 59 Normalisation and Moralisation of Sex ........................................................................................ 64 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 2: Hermaphroditism, Transvestism and Gender Indeterminacy ................................. 69 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 69 Portraits of Hermaphrodites: Transgressing the Sexual Dichotomy? ........................................... 74 Hermaphroditic Monstrosity and Exclusion ................................................................................. 83 Hermaphroditism and Homosexuality .......................................................................................... 89 Hermaphrodites, Heterotopias and Art ......................................................................................... 98 The Renewal of Masculinity ....................................................................................................... 105 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 110 Chapter 3: Masculine Insecurity, Effeminacy and Homosexuality ....................................... 113 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 113 The Son of the Napoleonic Soldier ............................................................................................. 114 The Weak Man ............................................................................................................................ 118 The Beautiful Man ...................................................................................................................... 124 iii The Puerile Man .......................................................................................................................... 129 The Protégé as a Figure of Homosexuality ................................................................................. 134 The Reconciled Man ................................................................................................................... 141 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 148 Chapter 4: Hyper-masculinity, Animality and Power............................................................ 151 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 151 Male Violence and Aggressive Behaviour in Mauprat ............................................................... 154 Animality and Savagery: The Case of Bernard de Mauprat ....................................................... 158 Hyper-masculinity and Power: The Case of Henri de Marsay.................................................... 165 ‘Le Pouvoir Féminin’ .................................................................................................................. 176 Hyper-masculinity and Justice: The Case of Claude Gueux ....................................................... 181 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 188 Chapter 5: Female Masculinity, Maternity and Gender Prescriptions ................................... 191 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 191 A Portrait of the Masculine Woman: Monumentalisation and Alienation .................................. 193 Female Masculinity, Intellectual Activities and Autonomy ....................................................... 200 The Sexuality of Masculine Woman ........................................................................................... 206 The Refusal of Motherhood and the Maternal Lover .................................................................. 215 The Ambiguity of the Masculine Woman: Beyond the Angel‒Demon Dichotomy ................... 222 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 229 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 231 Appendix 1: Summaries of the Novels .................................................................................. 239 Fragoletta: Naples et Paris en 1799 (1829) by Henri de Latouche............................................ 239 Sarrasine (1831) by Honoré de Balzac ....................................................................................... 239 Lélia (1833) by George Sand ...................................................................................................... 239 Claude Gueux (1834) by Victor Hugo ........................................................................................ 240 La Fille aux yeux d’or (1835) by Honoré de Balzac ................................................................... 240 Mademoiselle de Maupin: Double amour (1835) by Théophile Gautier .................................... 241 La Confession d’un enfant du siècle (1836) by Alfred de Musset .............................................. 241 Mauprat (1837) by George Sand ................................................................................................ 242 Illusions perdues (1837–43) by Honoré de Balzac ..................................................................... 243 Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (1838–47) by Honoré de Balzac .................................... 243 Béatrix (1839–45) by Honoré de Balzac ..................................................................................... 244 La Cousine Bette (1846) by Honoré de Balzac ........................................................................... 244 Appendix 2: Classifications of Hermaphroditisms ................................................................ 247 Marc’s classification of hermaphroditisms ................................................................................. 247 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s classification of hermaphroditisms ..................................................... 247 iv Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 249 Primary sources ..........................................................................................................................