WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch The space between: Defining the place for community radio Hallett, L. This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © Mr Lawrie Hallett, 2015. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: ((http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] THE SPACE BETWEEN DEFINING THE PLACE FOR COMMUNITY RADIO LAWRIE HALLETT A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2015 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the emergence of Community Radio in the United Kingdom. It places the sector within an historical context dominated by the BBC and strongly influenced by the subsequent arrival of commercial radio broadcasting. Understanding this historical context, which includes consideration of the role played by unlicensed 'pirate' radio operators, is, in the opinion of the author, a critical prerequisite necessary for assessing how and why current Community Radio practice has developed in the way it has. Primary research for this thesis includes a variety of semi-structured interviews with campaigners, practitioners and regulators and, whilst primarily focused on the emergence of the Community Radio sector within the British context, it does not ignore wider international perspectives. Recognising that, well before Community Radio began to emerge in the UK, much of the early conceptual development of the sector took place in other jurisdictions, the author also draws upon a number of international sources, including some primary research in the Republic of Ireland, Norway and the United States of America. The influence of two key factors, those of regulation and technology, are central to this research, the author arguing that these in particular have helped define (and constrain) the current position and future opportunities available to Community Radio within the United Kingdom. Legislation and regulation may have defined clear, and in some instances unique, operational objectives for British Community Radio, but when defining such objectives they have also had to take into account limited broadcast spectrum availability, constraining the scope and scale of the sector as a result. Beyond a consideration of the historical and of present day practice, this thesis also looks towards the future, examining current developments in digital broadcasting which offer the potential to counter such current capacity constraints and provide opportunities for additional community-based services in future. V 1.0 ii CONTENTS Abstract ii Contents iii List of Tables iv Accompanying Materials v Acknowledgements vi Author's Declaration vii Chapter 1: A Brief History of Radio Broadcasting 1 Chapters 2: The Arrival of Community Radio 44 Chapter 3: Theories, Practices (and Policies) of Community Radio 97 Chapter 4: Methodology 129 Chapter 5: Regulation in the Community Radio Sector 148 Chapter 6: Transmission in the Community Radio Sector 189 Chapter 7: Conclusions 223 Appendices: (i) AMARC Europe Charter (ii) Previously published materials Glossary References Bibliography V 1.0 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Key Elements of Broadcast Regulation p. 24 V 1.0 iv ACCOMPANYING MATERIALS Appendix (i) • AMARC - Community Radio Charter for Europe. Appendix (ii) • Previously published papers by the author, referred to in this thesis: • Hallett, Lawrie (2009). Community Radio Regulation - A Collaborative Model. Paper presented at the International Association of Media & Communication Research (IAMCR) Conference. Mexico, July 2009. • Hallett, Lawrie (2009). The Space Between: Making Room for Community Radio. In Gordon, Janey (Editor), Notions of Community, p.p. 33-58 (inclusive). • Hallett, Lawrie (2010). Community Radio In Transition - The Challenge Of Digital Migration. In O'Neill et al. (Editors), Digital Radio in Europe, Technologies, Industries and Cultures, p.p. 175-191 (inclusive). • Hallett, Lawrie & Wilson, Deborah (2010). Community Radio: Collaboration & Regulation. Paper presented at the Media Communication & Cultural Studies Association (MeCCSA) Conference. London, January 2010. • Hallett, Lawrie & Arne Hintz (2010). Digital Broadcasting - Challenges And Opportunities For European Community Radio Broadcasters. Journal Article: Telematics and Informatics (Volume 27, Issue 2, p.p. 151-161). Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing BV. • Hallett, Lawrie (2014). Democratising Digital Audio Broadcasting. Paper presented by the author at the International Association for Media and Communications Research (IAMCR) Conference). Hyderabad, India, July 2014. • Hallett, Lawrie (2015). UK Small Scale DAB Trials Move to Next Phase. Magazine Article: Radio World International, August 2015. V 1.0 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Barbara and Geoff Hallett. I would not have been able to complete it without the constant love, help and support of Aurogeeta Das. At the University of Westminster, I would like to thank my Director of Studies, Steven Barnett, and my Second Supervisors, David Hendy and latterly, Paul Dwyer. At the University of Bedfordshire, I would also like to thank Alexis Weedon, Gavin Stewart and, especially, Janey Gordon. This PhD thesis could not have been completed without the support of my previous colleagues at Ofcom, in particular Soo Williams and Peter Davies who gave me plenty to think about in relation to regulation, and Rashid Mustapha who championed the cause of small-scale DAB there. Martin Spencer at Audessence also deserves a special mention. I am also grateful to those that provided primary research materials for this thesis, in particular the various interviewees and all the others who gave freely of their time and knowledge. The staff and volunteers at Future Projects and Future Radio in Norwich deserve a particular mention here. Finally, I would like to thank my various other relatives, friends and colleagues, too numerous to mention, for all their various help and support in relation to this project. Lawrie Hallett October 2015. V 1.0 vi AUTHOR'S DECLARATION I declare that all the material contained in this thesis is my own work. Note: Where materials from jointly authored papers are drawn upon, only the sections written by me are used. Word Count: 73,286. V 1.0 vii CHAPTER ONE: A Brief History of Radio Broadcasting Some elements of this chapter are taken or adapted from the author's contribution: "The Space Between: Making Room for Community Radio" in Gordon (Editor) Notions of Community, 2009: 33-58 (inclusive). Introduction This PhD is about Community Radio, its characteristics, ideals and objectives. The primary focus of this research is on two key factors, both of which impact upon the operation of such services; namely, the role that is played by technology and the effects of regulation. As this thesis will show, in part because of the distinctive nature of the Community Radio sector and in part because of wider external factors, such influences are particularly relevant to its successful operation, development and sustainability. Before examining these twin themes of technology and regulation in more detail, an historical context is required within which to 'frame' the emergence of Community Radio. Setting out the relevant historical background also helps begin the process of defining what is meant by the term Community Radio: how it differs from other forms of radio broadcasting, in terms of what it seeks to do, and in relation to the processes through which it seeks to achieve such outcomes. This first chapter exploring the broad history of broadcast radio development since the early years of the twentieth century is followed by a second, which, in more detail, examines and contextualises the emergence of Community Radio as a 'third tier' of radio broadcasting. First however, a brief note about terminology. Whilst many parts of the world might be comfortable with the term 'community' as it relates to broadcast radio or to wider media, there exists a plethora of other options. Often near synonyms (although not exactly so), these include well known terms such as alternative media, participatory media and citizens' media, as well as perhaps more niche terms, including activist media, autonomous media, tactical media, independent media, the list goes on…. Hugh Chignell notes just how difficult the term is to define: 1 Chapter 1, v1.0 © Lawrie Hallett, 2015 Unfortunately, stating that it is radio specifically designed to meet the needs of the community will not do. Mainstream radio may also claim to meet those needs and may indeed be right. Similarly, 'small-scale', 'alternative' and 'socially beneficial' do not define community radio as these can also be characteristics of commercial and public service radio… It follows that attempting a really convincing definition of what has become one of the most interesting and rewarding areas of study within radio is beset with problems. It seems however, to be generally agreed that community radio stations place a priority on their relationship with an identified community