BLACK SKIN, WHITE MONEY: THE TRANSATLANTIC PROPAGANDA CAMPAIGN TO RECOLONIZE WEST AFRICA 1786 - 1863 by DANIEL JASON DEGGES DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History at The University of Texas at Arlington May 2020 Arlington, Texas Supervising Committee: Imre Demhardt, Supervising Professor Kenyon Zimmer Christopher Morris Sam Haynes ABSTRACT BLACK SKIN/WHITE MONEY: THE TRANSATLANTIC PROPAGANDA CAMPAIGN TO RECOLONIZE WEST AFRICA 1786 -1863 Daniel Jason Degges, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Arlington, 2020 Supervising Professors: Imre Demhardt, Kenyon Zimmer, Christopher Morris, and Sam Haynes Previous scholarship has mostly left the story of recolonization of former slaves and Free People of Color to West Africa in the dustbin of history. These studies also have artificially separated the multiple failed attempts into the story of either Sierra Leone or Liberia. This dissertation, for the first time, looks comprehensively and comparatively at the transatlantic propaganda campaign that accompanied each wave of support and resulting failures and the part it played in the success of the abolition movement. Ever marching westward from its London roots, recolonization’s boosters repeatedly tried to build on an imagined community that had little to do with the realities in West Africa. At its heart, the propaganda campaign offered a chance to avoid the perceived problems with a bi-racial society and the expected economic collapse with the end of slave-based capitalism. Recolonization, rather than integration, was the perceived solution to the fears of the destruction of the white race at the hands of their black-skinned countrymen. However, the men and women at the heart of the migration scheme consistently showed their ii unwillingness to continue to be used as pawns. Understanding the full scope of recolonization shows that for both the few that went to Africa and the majority that stayed behind, white colonization schemes proved useful for creating a space for black-skinned people to negotiate autonomy in the white-dominated Atlantic World. While each attempt had mixed success at best at relocating people to West Africa, recolonization played an indispensable role in advancing support for the cause of abolition even with each failure. iii Copyright by Daniel Jason Degges 2020 iv DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated at heart to the memory of my parents: W. Thomas and Shirley Degges At least partly to honor my parents, several individuals have contributed significant logistical, financial, and/or emotional support as I have attempted to complete this dissertation: Miranda Todd-Woerther Veronica W. Finucane Ronald C. Degges Charre D. Todd Serving as inspiration for this work is a lifetime of people I have watched, in one way or the other, fight, with varying degrees of success, the continued racial stratification of the English- speaking Transatlantic world. To all of you, Thank you. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank everybody who contributed to the successful completion of this dissertation. First, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Imre Demhart, for all of his guidance and input throughout the process. His ability to open my eyes to new ways of looking at maps serves as an integral part of this dissertation. I would also like to thank the members of my Dissertation Committee. Dr. Kenyon Zimmer has provided me extensive professional guidance throughout my graduate career and shared his wealth of knowledge on the transatlantic world and migrations that is so pivotal to this work. Dr. Christopher Morris, from my graduate class on slavery in the Atlantic world to the final edits to this dissertation, has stepped in to force me to deal with uncomfortable questions and deepen my research across multiple fields. Dr. Sam Haynes introduced me too and guided me as I sought to look at the “special relationship” between the United States and Great Britain that reaches past mere government actions and deep into the economic, cultural, and social fabric that continues to inform our world. This work would not have been possible without the support of The University of Texas at Arlington. The university provided me with financial support through my assistantship and as well as separate funding from the College of Liberal Arts for a research trip to Great Britain. With the diverse historiographies involved in this dissertation, many professors contributed through lectures, conversations, and suggestions to this work. From the department here at the University of Texas at Arlington, I would like to thank Dr. Cristina Salinas, Dr. David Lefevor, Dr. Steven Maizlish, Dr. David Narrett, Dr. Charles Travis, and Dr. Kim Breuer for adding elements to my approach that strengthened this work. Dr. John Garrigus, from the beginning of the graduate school process, continually introduced me to new ways of thinking about questions of race, empire, and the social fabric of the Atlantic world. None of this would have been vi possible without the foundation laid by Dr. Steven Reinhardt early in my career who taught me to always look to the text for the answers. I would also be remiss not to mention the invaluable help provided by Dr. Stephanie Cole. Through her diligence and positive exploration of the craft of history, she has made me a better teacher and, in the process, improved my own work. Through feedback on conference presentations, classes, and private meetings, two professors now emeritus stand out for the perspectives they provided that are integral to this work. The genesis for this project came from a class on the history of West Africa with Dr. Alusine Jalloh. Dr. Jalloh, from that point on, made himself available for discussion about the complexity of transatlantic connections with Africa and the English-speaking western world for the last five hundred years. As the project took shape, the former chair of the History department here at the University of Texas at Arlington, Dr. W. Marvin Dulaney provided a deeper understanding and direction for this dissertation. Through his own work and feedback on specific aspects of this project, he led me to a way of thinking and an enormous body of scholarship on the rich and diverse history of African Americans. The research for this work was made possible by an indispensable army of archivists across the United States and Great Britain. First and foremost is the direct and indirect help of Brenda McClurkin, the head of Special Collections here at the university. On top of creating an open and helpful environment for research, she made pieces of research form her own collection available that helped to bring unknown figures from the past that deserve more attention than is given in this work. The archivists from the Herefordshire Archives and Records Centre allowed me considerable latitude in digging into another of the lesser-known historical figures and The Friends of Africa journal so crucial to understanding the continuing involvement of Great Britain in recolonization after British emancipation. I would also like to thank the staff of the library of vii the Society of Friends, based at Friends House in London, for their week of patience with the American, as I delved into the economic motivations behind many past Quakers. Other researchers have added undeniable parts to this work. Almost to a person, each of my fellow cohorts here at the University of Texas at Arlington provided sources they ran across or a different perspective on what I thought I knew. For this, I thank each of them. I must also thank other historians that helped through multiple discussions in multiple conferences and private discussions to formulate and add sources to this work, such as Roy P Wisecarver III, who became a friend because we always disagreed on small points. Other researchers outside of the university have also provided me with other material, some like independent British researcher Karen Hemmingham, did so without realizing how valuable the lead they gave was to my own research. Others added almost accidentally to the depth of this project, such as Clark Feiser of the Natchez Chamber of Commerce. Along with the indispensable critiques of my committee, others have helped in the editing process of this dissertation. Dr. Lydia Towns, a budding expert on empires in the Atlantic world, willingly answered questions about the process and even edits to certain portions of this work. I would also like to extend a special thank you to another student of African American History who tirelessly looked at each and every chapter of this dissertation, Ahmed Foggie. He helped to make this work more articulate but also was willing to have almost weekly discussions about the subject matter that made both of us better informed. Finally, to not be forgotten, along with the outside support of my family, is the inexhaustible help of Dr. Clint Young. My former undergraduate advisor, Dr. Young, has served ever since as a sounding board for all the scores of questions and incidentals required to get to this point. To him and all others involved, thank you. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................