ECONOMIC INDEPENDENCE FOR MOTHERS OF YOUNG CHILDREN: IMPOSSIBLE DREAM OR AGENDA FOR CHANGE? Submitted by Marty (Valma May) Grace Department of Communication, Language and Cultural Studies Faculty of Arts Victoria University Melbourne In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2002 Statement of Originality and Ethics Approval This work has not previously been submitted, in whole or in part, for a degree or diploma at this or any other university. It includes no material previously published or written by any other person, except where due reference is made in the text and notes. This research was approved by the Victoria University of Technology Human Research Ethics Committee, Approval Number HRETH 42/96. Marty Grace August 2002 Dedication Three of my family members died during my candidature. My parents Fred and Valma Grace supported and encouraged my work. My grandson Vaughn inspired me with his zest for life. This work is dedicated to them. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ......................................................................................................vii ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................................viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.....................................................................................................................ix PREAMBLE: Personal background to the study......................................................................................x CHAPTER 1:CARING FOR YOUNG CHILDREN: THE NEED FOR CHANGE................................1 Brief overview of the study ......................................................................................................................1 Dissatisfaction with social arrangements for care of young children .......................................................6 A women’s issue?...................................................................................................................................10 Conditions of life and economic arrangements of Australian mothers of young children......................11 Time use: Paid and unpaid work ............................................................................................................15 Care of young children as exploitation of women’s labour....................................................................18 Caring for young children and public policy..........................................................................................20 Feminism and motherhood .....................................................................................................................22 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................................25 Structure of the thesis .............................................................................................................................27 CHAPTER 2: PAID AND UNPAID WORK: CRITIQUE AND IDEAS FOR CHANGE....................28 Historical changes to paid and unpaid work...........................................................................................28 Criticism of the public/private split ........................................................................................................33 Social policy...........................................................................................................................................35 Gender-based wages policy ..........................................................................................................36 Income support..............................................................................................................................38 Unpaid work and women’s economic position.......................................................................................40 Feminist theory and activism..................................................................................................................42 First-wave and post-suffrage feminism.........................................................................................43 Second-wave feminism.................................................................................................................46 Third-wave feminism....................................................................................................................51 Need for change and barriers to change .................................................................................................54 Work and family conflict: ideas for change..................................................................................55 Scandinavian models.....................................................................................................................61 This study in relation to the literature.....................................................................................................62 CHAPTER 3: THEORISING AN AGENDA FOR CHANGE ..............................................................65 Contemporary critical social theory........................................................................................................65 Social reform and transformational change ..................................................................................75 The idea of a coherent agenda for change.....................................................................................76 Feminist theory.......................................................................................................................................77 Equality/difference........................................................................................................................79 The public/private divide and citizenship .....................................................................................81 Family ...........................................................................................................................................84 Framework for considering future change..............................................................................................85 CHAPTER 4: CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH ................................................................................90 Rationale for methodology .....................................................................................................................91 Research strategies .................................................................................................................................92 Feminist approach of the research ..........................................................................................................93 Reflexivity in the research......................................................................................................................96 Methods of data collection and analysis...............................................................................................101 Interviews with high-profile social commentators......................................................................101 Second-round focus groups.........................................................................................................104 Ethical considerations...........................................................................................................................107 Ethical standards of the research design and...............................................................................108 competence of the researcher......................................................................................................108 Informed consent ........................................................................................................................108 Welfare of participants................................................................................................................109 Limitations of the study........................................................................................................................110 Summary ..............................................................................................................................................111 CHAPTER 5: SOCIAL COMMENTATORS’ IDEAS FOR CHANGE..............................................113 Interviewees’ interest, perspective and vision ......................................................................................114 Pathways towards a better future..........................................................................................................124 Maternity leave.....................................................................................................................................125 Childcare ..............................................................................................................................................128 Labour market participation .................................................................................................................130 Workplace and employment conditions ...............................................................................................133 Gender equity .......................................................................................................................................135 Bringing about change..........................................................................................................................136