The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Communications THE NEW CATHEDRALS: THE SPORTS STADIUM AND MASS MEDIA’S ROLE IN FACILITATING NEW CONSTRUCTION A Thesis in Mass Communication by Robert C. Trumpbour © 2001 Robert C. Trumpbour Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2001 We approve the thesis of Robert C. Trumpbour. Date of Signature _____________________________ _____________________ Richard L. Barton Professor of Communications Associate Dean of Graduate Studies and Research Thesis Adviser Chair of Committee _____________________________ ______________________ Suzanna DeBoef Associate Professor of Political Science _____________________________ ______________________ Patrick Parsons Associate Professor of Communications _____________________________ ______________________ Ronald A. Smith Professor Emeritus of Exercise and Sport Science iii Abstract Stadium construction has occurred at record-breaking level in major metropolitan areas of the United States in the last decade. This dissertation traces media coverage of stadium construction policy throughout the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century, focusing specifically on newspaper coverage of this issue. The hypothesis that media practitioners in smaller metropolitan areas will be more likely to privilege voices supporting new stadium construction is examined. The case study method is utilized and content analysis is employed to determine media coverage trends in major American metropolitan areas. Cincinnati and Pittsburgh are examined as small market cities, while Boston and New York are explored as larger market cities. Evidence is provided that larger markets adopt a more critical position than small market cities regarding new stadium construction in newspaper opinion content. Large market publications are similar to smaller market counterparts in providing greater opportunity for expression to pro-stadium voices. Boston, Cincinnati, and Pittsburgh provided more detailed news coverage of this issue than New York City, the largest media market observed. The ramifications of such coverage tendencies for the broader public are examined. Historic examination of stadium construction coverage from the Progressive Era to the present provides evidence of a changing policy landscape. Construction policy changes include a shifting of power from political leaders to sports franchise owners and political approval of more dramatic levels of stadium-related taxpayer subsidies. Citizens have never been major contributors to the dialogue about stadium construction policy in major-market media coverage. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS: Acknowledgments:..........................................................................................................page v Chapter 1: Introduction...................................................................................................page 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review..........................................................................................page 49 Chapter 3: Framework for Analysis.................................................................................page 77 Chapter 4: The Cincinnati Case Study.............................................................................page 115 Chapter 5: The Pittsburgh Case Study.............................................................................page 176 Chapter 6: The Boston Case Study..................................................................................page 250 Chapter 7: The New York Case Study............................................................................page 309 Chapter 8: Conclusion.....................................................................................................page 357 Appendices.....................................................................................................................page 391 Item A: Content Analysis Results Tables................................page 391 Item B: Content Analysis Coding Sheet..................................page 397 Bibliography...................................................................................................................page 398 v Acknowledgments A project this extensive could not have been completed without the support of many individuals. First, I would like to thank my wife, Jill, for her steadfast support of my project. I could not have completed this without her help and understanding. She has helped motivate me in more ways than I can explain. My dissertation committee has been another source of strength for me. They have been highly supportive and each member has made valuable contributions to both the dissertation and to my own personal development. Special thanks to Dr. Richard Barton for enthusiastically supporting this research. Many other communication researchers would have steered me away from sports-oriented research, which I believe has been a deficiency in mass communication research. Dr. Barton’s hours of support and guidance helped to address this important aspect of American culture. The importance of this focus can not be underestimated at a time when sports- related media content continues to draw much larger audiences than much of the content that is routinely covered by mass communication scholars. Dr. Barton’s commitment to diversity in scholarship extends well beyond the boundaries of traditionally accepted definitions of this term. Other member of the committee deserve high praise for working with me as the project came together. Dr. Ronald Smith pushed me often to seek excellence. His help has taken many forms. Whether at a professional conference, or at his home in Lemont, PA, he has always been willing to lend an ear and offer frank advice about the direction of my scholarship. Dr. Suzanna DeBoef has taught me much about political science, particularly public opinion and political leadership. I have integrated many lessons from her lectures on Presidential leadership and public opinion into scholarship that has been received positively at professional conferences. Finally, Dr. Patrick Parsons has been a valued and patient friend throughout the process, pushing me to consider the range of theory that might be integrated into my scholarship. His suggestions have helped to move my work forward in a number of important ways. Many thanks to the many professionals in the Pennsylvania State University library system. Their patience with my many inquiries has been sincerely appreciated. Helen Sheehy, in particular, has been especially willing to lend a helping hand. Also, I am thankful to individuals in the various libraries around the country that have provided sources and information for my project. The Cincinnati Public Library, the University of Cincinnati Library system, the Carnegie Library in Pittsburgh, the University of Pittsburgh’s Hillman Library, the Boston Public Library, the New York Public Library, and the Lovejoy Library at Southern Illinois University were very helpful with information that helped to make this a better project. I am also thankful to Larry and Linda Dailey for technical and editing assistance. Thanks are also in order for the many family members who helped me to bring this project together. My son, Luke, born on October 27, 2000, provided many infectious smiles which provided inspiration to complete the project. My parents, Robert Trumpbour, Sr. and Virginia Droesch Trumpbour and my eleven brothers and sisters have all helped in some way to motivate me to complete this project. My brother, Jack, was particularly generous with his time and suggestions. My mother and father-in-law, Gene and Audrey Zary, also helped me to monitor and gather information about the Pittsburgh case study. Their support often went above and beyond the call of duty. I am also indebted to many friends and colleagues who have patiently tolerated my lack of availability as I have devoted time to this research. Finally, I am grateful for the inspiration of vi my niece, Mary and my friends Bruce Barlow and Kurt Knee. They may be in a better place now, but their brief lives on earth continue to inspire me, and the long list of other individuals they have touched, to achieve great things. To the many residents of the cities that I examined, thank you for opening up to my inquiries about your home towns. It was a pleasure to examine many cities that are struggling with stadium construction issues. The warmth and hospitality that I encountered was very rewarding. Each of the places that I examined has a number of strengths, but none seem more important that the commitment of the citizens of the region to the vitality of their proud cities. Although I feel saddened by the trend of abandoning old, historic buildings in favor of brand new facilities with more capacity to generate team revenues, I did my best to reflect all dimensions of this complex issue. While many individuals have disdain for the stadiums built in the late 1960s and early 1970s, I am troubled that all of these facilities may face the wrecking ball by the end of this decade. While these facilities do not have all the amenities of new stadiums, they reflect an era of optimism, when communities felt that football and baseball could coexist without separate venues. I am hopeful that at least one of these facilities might be preserved so that in generations ahead citizens can continue to experience the uniqueness of a variety of ballparks. The current cycle of professional