ELECTIONS AND THE MANAGEMENT OF DIVERSITY IN BOTSWANA OF AND THE MANAGEMENT ELECTIONS Good governance has come to be the economy; observance of the rule of law; prerequisite for foreign direct investment an efficient and effective public service, an in developing countries. While the accountable and transparent Government; Elections and the definition of good governance remains existence of and protection of media disputed, its fundamental elements are freedom, and; a vibrant civil society. The Management of generally agreed. These include: free, fair executive summary presents a synopsis and transparent elections; an effective as well as some recommendations of the system of the transfer of power; predictable study on Elections and the Management Diversity in Botswana laws; protection of the citizens’ rights; of Diversity in Africa that was carried out equality before the law; stable macro- in Botswana. Edited by Molefe B. Phirinyane Contributors Raymond Lekobane David Mmopelwa Molefe B. Phirinyane Gape Kaboyakgosi Keneilwe P. Marata Keneilwe S. Mooketsane BOTSWANA INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT POLICY ANALYSIS POLICY DEVELOPMENT FOR INSTITUTE BOTSWANA Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis 9 789991 271507 Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis ELECTIONS AND THE MANAGEMENT OF DIVERSITY IN BOTSWANA Edited by MOLEFE B. PHIRINYANE Lentswe La Lesedi Elections and the Management of Diversity in Botswana Published by LIGHTBOOKS a division of LENTSWE LA LESEDI (PTY) LTD PO Box 2365, Gaborone, Botswana. Tel: 3903994, E-mail: [email protected], Web: www.lightbooksbotswana.net on behalf of the Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis (BIDPA) Private Bag BR29 Gaborone Botswana www.bidpa.bw First published 2013 ISBN 978-99912-71-50-7 © Copyright Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis and the authors, 2013 All rights reserved. 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Cover design by Paul Melenhorst Typesetting and design by LENTSWE LA LESEDI (PTY) LTD Printed by Printing and Publishing Botswana (Pty) Ltd CONTENTS List of Figures vi List of Tables vi List of Abbreviations vii List of Contributors viii Acknowledgements ix Executive Summary xi List of Recommendations xiii CHAPTER I: CONTEXT: HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY 1 Introduction 1 Social Composition of the State and its Diversities 1 Botswana’s Constitutional, Economic and Political History 4 (a) Constitutional development 4 (b) Economic development 5 (c) Political history 6 Character and Structure of the Postcolonial State 7 (a) The inheritance elite and successor regime 7 (b) Party politics and political culture 8 F 7KHFRQÀJXUDWLRQRIHWKQLFDQGRWKHUGLYHUVLWLHV (d) The character and structure of civil society 8 (e) The external African and the extra-African globalising factors in the development of the postcolonial state 9 The Unfolding Contradictions of the Postcolonial State – for the State and Society 11 Conclusion 12 References 13 CHAPTER II: METHODOLOGY 15 Introduction 15 The Methodology Workshop 15 The Expert Panel Study 15 Data Collection 17 Data Processing and Analyses 17 Focus Group Discussions 17 The Desk Research 18 The Validation Workshop 18 Study Limitations and Challenges 18 Conclusion 19 References 19 CHAPTER III: STATE, SOCIETY STRUCTURE AND PROCESS OF GOVERNANCE 21 Introduction 21 The Character of the State 21 (a) Traditional governance institutions 21 (b) The extent of centralisation 21 (c) Pressures for political federalism, or decentralization 22 (d) Citizenship in a plural state 23 (e) Constitutional provision or conventional arrangements for power sharing 24 iv EDITED BY MOLEFE B. PHIRINYANE Major Cultural, Economic and Political Institutions of Current Governmental Process of the Country 24 Forms and Types of State Structures 25 Rules of Political Succession 26 The Interface between the State, Private Sector and Society 26 Implications of Diversity and Homogeneity for the Emergence of Sub-National Identities 27 Linkages between Political Elite and the Masses 28 The Character and Structure (Differentiation) of the Country’s Civil Society 28 The Role of the State in the Distribution of Public Resources and Social Surplus 29 Conclusion 29 References 29 CHAPTER IV: THE DYNAMICS OF COMPETITIVE PARTY POLITICS 31 Introduction 31 The Nature, Character and Functions of Political Parties 31 Resource Allocation and BDP Domination 32 3ROLWLFDO$IÀOLDWLRQDQGWKH)UHHGRPRI$VVRFLDWLRQ Specially Elected Members of Parliament and Councillors 34 Status and Role of Opposition Parties 35 Electoral Behaviour 36 Internal Democracy and Party Primary Elections 38 The Nature of Political Campaigns and the Issue of Diversity 41 Checks and Balances, Party Politics and Formation of Cabinets 42 Electoral System and Competitive Politics 43 Conclusion 44 References 45 CHAPTER V: THE DYNAMICS OF ELECTORAL GOVERNANCE 47 Introduction 47 Electoral Governance 47 Electoral Governance Issues 47 (a) Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs) 47 (b) The electoral system 49 (c) Electoral law 50 (d) Constituency delimitation 50 (e) The voter registration exercise 51 (f) Voter education 53 (g) The organisation of general elections 54 (h) Role of domestic and international observer and monitoring teams 55 (i) Election dispute adjudication mechanisms 57 (j) Mutual impact of electoral governance and diversity on each other and its consequences on competitive party politics and the government process 57 (k) Environment of electoral governance: constraining and enabling factors 57 Conclusion 58 References 58 CHAPTER VI: ELECTIONS, DIVERSITY AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE 61 Introduction 61 National Diversity, Parties and Electoral Competition 61 The Credibility of Elections: Fairness and Transparency 63 The Neutrality of the Election Management Authority 64 ELECTIONS AND THE MANAGEMENT OF DIVERSITY IN BOTSWANA v &RQÁLFWVDQG&RQWHVWDWLRQVLQWKH(OHFWRUDO3URFHVV Intra-party Political Violence 66 Inter-party Electoral Competition, Violence and the Politics of Diversity 67 Trends in Political and Electoral Violence 68 Conclusion 68 References 69 CHAPTER VII: THE ECONOMICS OF ELECTIONS 71 Introduction 71 Funding of Elections 71 Financial and Human Resource Autonomy of the IEC 71 Election Resources and Political Competition 72 Financing of Party Establishments 73 Class and Group Resource Inequalities 74 Women 74 Youth 75 Ethnic minorities 76 &RVWV%HQHÀW$QDO\VLVRIWKH(OHFWRUDO6\VWHP Direct costs of elections 76 Indirect Effects of the Electoral System 77 Government effectiveness 78 Conclusions 82 References 82 CHAPTER VIII: CONSTITUTIONAL, POLITICAL AND ELECTORAL REFORM 85 Introduction 85 Constitutional and Political Reforms 85 (a) Political succession and term limits 85 (b) Relationship between executive, legislature and judiciary (separation of powers) 86 (c) The party system, party structure and intra-party democracy 86 (d) Civil liberties, human rights and the rule of law 88 H )UHHGRPRIWKHPHGLDDQGIUHHGRPRILQIRUPDWLRQÁRZ (f) Access to justice 89 Electoral Reforms 90 (a) Reforms of the EMB 91 (b) Improving election adjudication mechanisms 91 (c) Access to electoral resources (including media) 91 (d) Role of security forces and their non-partisanship in the electoral process 92 (e) Civic and voter education and the role of civil society in it 93 Conclusion 93 References 94 CHAPTER IX: ELECTIONS AND MANAGING DIVERSITY: POLICY OPTIONS AND A WAY FORWARD 97 Introduction 97 The Constitution and Diversity 97 Elections and Diversity 98 Economic Development 98 Civil Society Participation 99 Political Parties and Elections 99 The Electoral System 100 References 101 vi EDITED BY MOLEFE B. PHIRINYANE LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Map of Botswana showing administrative districts 2 Figure 2.1: Distribution of Expert Panel respondents by gender 16 Figure 2.2: Distribution of Expert Panel respondents by age groups 16 Figure 2.3: Distribution of Expert Panel respondents by education level 16 Figure 2.4: Distribution of Expert Panel respondents by sector of employment 17 Figure 2.5: Distribution of Expert Panel respondents by place of origin 17 Figure 4.1: Political parties have equal access to electoral resources 33 Figure 4.2: Voting preferences by electorate largely determined by programme and agenda of political parties 37 Figure 4.3: The Composition of government leadership represents all segments and diverse interests 38 )LJXUH3ROLWLFDOSDUWLHVSUDFWLFHLQWHUQDOGHPRFUDF\LQWKHHOHFWLRQRISDUW\RIÀFLDOVDQGSDUW\ candidates for general elections 39 Figure 4.5: Women play a major role in party politics 40 )LJXUH6HFWDULDQLGHQWLW\JURXSVKDYHFRQVLGHUDEOHLQÁXHQFHLQWKHFRXQWU\·VSROLWLFDOSURFHVV Figure 4.7: Political Party campaigns are usually marked by sectarian sentiments 42 Figure 4.8: Political Parties are formed and mobilise electoral support on sectarian identity basis 42 Figure 4.9: The electoral system promotes inclusion and representation of diverse groups 44 Figure 5.1: The procedure for the appointment and removal to the IEC is open, transparent and credible 48 Figure 5.2: Voter registration generally credible and accepted by all as being transparent and well conducted? 52 Figure 6.1: Electoral support of political parties, 1965 – 2009 (% of votes) 62 Figure 6.2: National elections are free, fair and transparent 63 Figure 6.3: Appointment and removal of electoral commissions should be handled by an independent non-partisan body 64 Figure 6.4: Judiciary’s independence