TRANSFORMATION OF THE RED RIVER VALLEY OF THE NORTH: AN ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the North Dakota State University of Agriculture and Applied Science By Kathleen Ruth Gilmore Brokke In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Major Department: History, Philosophy, and Religious Studies December 2015 Fargo, North Dakota North Dakota State University Graduate School Title TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE RED RIVER VALLEY OF THE NORTH: AN ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY By Kathleen Ruth Gilmore Brokke The Supervisory Committee certifies that this disquisition complies with North Dakota State University’s regulations and meets the accepted standards for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: Dr. Mark Harvey Chair Dr. Thomas Isern Dr. Gary K. Clambey Dr. Jim Mochoruk Approved: April 14, 2016 Dr. John K. Cox Date Department Chair ABSTRACT This environmental history of the Red River Valley from the mid 1850s – 2000 encompasses those who lived in this tallgrass prairie region and asks how did they live within this environment? In addition, it seeks to understand how they utilized their surrounding natural world. Beyond this, with less than 1 percent of the tallgrass prairie remaining, this work showcases an important aspect of our region few know. Why is this important? The tallgrass helped create the fertile soil, which is the major reason for the high yields of wheat and other crops, and agriculture is the major industry in this region. Also, many of the native plants that once grew abundantly were eaten as food or used as medicine. A ‘cornucopia’ of food existed in this region. There is a loss in our Red River Valley that few know. This region was actually a complex environment, which looked remarkably simple to most who viewed the ‘sea of waving grass.’ This environmental history researches the changes to the surrounding tallgrasses, wetlands, and rivers, as transitions occurred from Native American to Euro-American settlers who adjusted to this new prairie environment, changing the natural world in the process as well. Geology and geography help us to understand the issues of floods in this very young river valley. This research also addresses how changes since the early 1900s have dramatically altered our rivers and wetlands, which were a major part of this landscape, and how this has impacted our lives today. My original quest was to discover how this region appeared with its differing grasses and forbs, riparian forests along the rivers, and the thriving wildlife – bison, deer, elk, bears, wolves, and coyotes. In addition, I sought to understand how others had lived here before Euro- Americans settled in this Red River Valley. iii All of this is important for us to better understand our environment and ourselves and to learn from our past for our present lives as well. This is a very unique environment and we are wealthy beyond measure in our residence upon it. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express her sincere appreciation to Dr. Mark Harvey for his guidance, patience, insights, and constructive criticism for this entire research in addition to sharing this amazing environmental history with me. A huge thank you, also, to my committee, Dr. Tom Isern, Dr. Jim Mochoruk, and Dr. Gary Clambey, who have honored me with sharing their valuable time, expertise, and knowledge in perusing this dissertation. A special thanks to our libraries and archives that store amazing gems for us to discover in our research. The librarians in them all, particularly the St. Paul, Minnesota, Historical Library, the Livingston Lord Library at Moorhead University, the Chester Fritz Library at the University of North Dakota, the State Historical Library in Bismarck, and the Institute for Regional Research Archives in Fargo, where I found a major part of my research, are all to be commended for their work, their help, and their wonderful resources. I wish also to thank Dr. Angela Smith for her immeasurable help and expertise in the electronic format for this dissertation. A giant thank you to you all for helping me reach this goal of my Red River Valley Environmental history. A special thanks to strong support from my friends, especially Elaine Speare, and family, particularly my sister, Barbara, and my husband, Jerry. My daughters and son-in-law as well, Emily, Sarah, and James, kept me on track with their questions, interest, and empathy. Two excited grandchildren who want to see my chapter book, Isaac and Freya, helped me focus, laugh a lot, and remember why this is all so important when we enjoyed many outdoor adventures together. Thank you all – colleagues, family, and friends – for your encouragement and belief in positive endings. This has been an amazing journey. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES .................................................................................................. viii LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: AN ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY OF A YOUNG RIVER VALLEY .............. 1 CHAPTER 2: ABUNDANT LIFE IN THE DIVERSE, TALLGRASS RED RIVER VALLEY....................................................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 3: BURGEONING EURO-AMERICAN INTEREST IN THE RED RIVER VALLEY....................................................................................................................................... 52 CHAPTER 4: EURO-AMERICAN SETTLERS ......................................................................... 74 CHAPTER 5: BONANZA FARMS ........................................................................................... 116 CHAPTER 6: SCIENCE ENTERS THE RED RIVER VALLEY ............................................. 150 CHAPTER 7: A DIFFICULT DECADE – DUST, DROUGHT, AND DEPRESSION ............ 193 CHAPTER 8: THE TROUBLE WITH TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE WATER ................... 224 CHAPTER 9: THE WINDS OF CHANGE................................................................................ 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 278 APPENDIX A: MAPS ................................................................................................................ 298 APPENDIX B: LIST OF MEDICINAL WILD PLANTS OF THE PRAIRIE .......................... 314 APPENDIX C: ANIMAL PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE RED RIVER VALLEY ...... 318 APPENDIX D: NORTHWEST TERRITORY SALES EARNINGS ........................................ 320 APPENDIX E: BIRD INVENTORY OF NORTHERN RRV, 1902-1928 ................................ 321 APPENDIX F: FANNIE MAHOOD HEATH’S LIST OF HARDY FLOWERS OF THE PRAIRIELAND” ........................................................................................................................ 322 APPENDIX G: RED RIVER VALLEY WATER SUPPLY ...................................................... 323 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1: Animal Furs, Grease, And Meat Volumes Recorded At The Park River Fur Trading Post Between 1800 And 1801. .............................................................................................. 48 2: Government Dollars Spent To Control Grasshoppers Between 1936 And 1948. ............... 205 3: The Number Of Belts Planted And A Distribution Of Belts By Rating Of Classes In Various North Dakota Counties. .......................................................................................... 212 vii LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES Table Page C 1: Animal Products Derived From The Red River Valley .................................................... 318 D 1: Sales Statistics In St. Paul Press, 29 August 1863, Of Burgeoning Northwest Territory Trade. ................................................................................................................. 320 E 1: Birds Reported To The Bureau Of Biological Survey, Washington, D.C., 1902- 1928. .................................................................................................................................. 321 F 1: Fannie Mahood Heath’s List Of Hardy Flowers Of The Prairieland. ............................... 322 G 1: Water Supply Needs And Options. ................................................................................... 323 viii LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES Figures Page A 1: Tributaries Of The Red River Of The North .................................................................. 298 A 2: Red River Of The North Drainage Basin ........................................................................ 299 A 3: Cultural Affiliations Of Native American Groups .......................................................... 300 A 4: Red River Oxcarts, 1820-1870 ....................................................................................... 301 A 5: Wagon Trails Of The 1860s ............................................................................................ 302 A 6: Climate Zone Map .........................................................................................................