The University of Sydney Depictions of Thailand in Australian and Thai Writings: Reflections of the Self and Other Isaraporn Pissa-ard A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English March 2009 Abstract This thesis offers both an examination of the depiction of Thailand in Australian novels, short stories and poems written in the 1980s and after, and an analysis of modern Thai novels and short stories that reflect similar themes to those covered in the Australian literature. One Australian film is also examined as the film provides an important framework for the analysis of some of the short stories and novels under consideration. The thesis establishes a dialogue between Thai and Australian literatures and demonstrates that the comparison of Australian representations of Thailand with Thai representations challenges constructively certain dominant political and social ideologies that enhance conservatism and the status quo in Thailand. The author acknowledges that the discussion of the representations of Thailand in contemporary Australian novels and short stories needs to take into account the colonial legacy and the discourse of Orientalism that tends to posit the ‘East’ as the ‘West’’s ‘Other’. Textual analysis is thus informed by post-colonial and cross-cultural theories, starting from Edward Said’s powerful and controversial critique of Western representation of the East in Orientalism . The first part of the thesis examines Australian crime stories and shows how certain Orientalist images and perceptions persist and help reinforce the image of the East and its people as the antithesis of the West. From Chapters Three through Six, however, more literary works by Australian authors are examined. The important finding is that most of the Australian authors under consideration attempt, though not always successfully, to resist and challenge the Eurocentric stereotypes of Asia and Asians that dominated Australian literature in earlier periods. This difference between contemporary Australian authors and their predecessors seems to reflect modern Australia’s endeavor to distinguish itself from the rest of the Western world and to redefine its relationship with Asia. As literary representations cannot be separated from socio-political contexts, the thesis also includes discussion of the Thai social and political history and, where appropriate, shows how colonialism and neo-colonialism exert their impact on modern Thailand. Acknowledgements The writing of this thesis would not have been possible without the guidance, encouragement, patience and understanding of my late supervisor, Dr Noel Rowe, who also contributed immensely to the expansions of my academic and personal horizons. His poems and his interest in Thailand are the most important source of my inspiration. His poetry and his writing will continue to provide me with insights and guidance after I leave Sydney and return to my home country. My heartfelt thanks also go to my current supervisor, Dr Bernadette Brennan, who has shown great interest and given me so much of her time to help criticize, shape, edit and proofread this work. Her keen interest in the writer’s role in, and influence on, society inspires me to investigate further the political aspect of Thai works so as to foreground their potential in challenging existing verities and contributing to a more democratic, pluralistic and open Thailand. Many thanks are due my parents, Jason Zhao and my sister for their unwavering support, encouragement and patience. To Tim, Kaweeka, Dr J and Somsak, I would like to express my deep appreciation for their insightful comments about Thailand and their enthusiasm for serious debates and discussions. I would also like to thank Helena Poropat for her help with proof-reading. Contents Chapter one: Introduction 1 Chapter two: Crime 26 Chapter three: Politics 73 Chapter four: Buddhism 123 Chapter five: Women 176 Chapter six: Gay Men 239 Conclusion 295 Works Cited 310 Presentation and Referencing Convention This thesis follows the MLA Handbook 6th edition for matters of presentation, using parenthetical documentation. References cited in the text appear in the list of works cited. Notes on Thai language Thai is a member of a distinct language family, Tai- Kadai. Spoken Thai uses five tones (middle, high, low, rising, and falling) and the modern Thai alphabet contains forty consonants and twenty-four vowels. Although Thai has its own phonetic script, the representation of Thai words in English presents several problems because there is no generally agreed system of transliteration. In this thesis, I adopt the modified version of the Thai Royal Institute System since this system is the one most commonly adopted by official usage within Thailand. Many Thais, however, do not normally transcribe their names in accordance with the principles outlined by the Royal Institute. In this thesis, the English spelling of Thai names reflects the owners’ preference if it is known. The use of surnames was introduced in Thailand at the beginning of the twentieth century and all Thai titles are prefixed to given names. Lists of Thai names, such as in Thai telephone books, are arranged alphabetically by first name, not surname. Thai language publications also list Thai authors alphabetically by first name. In this thesis citations of works by Thai authors refer to authors by given name. 1 Chapter one: Introduction As with other Southeast Asian nations , Western colonialism forced Thailand (formerly Siam) to undergo a number of drastic political and social changes. Thailand nonetheless was able to avoid the grip of direct colonial rule and this has always been a source of national pride. One of the strategies that Thai leaders in the past perceived as instrumental to avoid colonisation was the construction of a ‘modern’ and ‘civilised’ image to present to Western powers. In “Slavery and Modernity: Freedom in the Making of Modern Siam” Thanet Aphornsuvan maintains that during the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Western colonialism was perceived as a crucial threat to the political power of the Thai ruling class (179). The then Thai kings, Mongkut (r.1851-68) and his successor, Chulalongkorn (r.1868-1910), carried out extensive plans to ‘modernise’ the country in the hope of achieving more equal negotiations with Western powers and maintain national sovereignty. A number of changes were also made to indigenous cultural and social practices, particularly regarding the institution of slavery. During the reign of King Mongkut, noblemen were forbidden to whip their slaves in the presence of Westerners. The king feared that Siam would be regarded as a barbarian society by Westerners if they witnessed his subjects physically abusing their slaves in public, and this might be used to justify Western colonialism. More changes took place when King Chulalongkorn ascended the throne in 1868. The king decided to abolish slavery, an institution he perceived as unsuited for a civilised nation (Thanet, “Slavery and Modernity” 171-76). 1 Prince 1 See Kwai Jok Foong for an interesting critique of King Chulalongkorn’s attempts to ‘revolutionise’ Siam. Kwai Jok Foong also discusses how a number of the king’s arguments can be related to contemporary political discourses in Thailand (09.12.08: http://khikwai.com/blog/2008/12/09/democracy-thai-style/ ). 2 Damrong, the king’s brother, provided an intellectual reflection on slavery and rewrote the history of slavery as something borrowed from Khmer tradition and thus un-Thai. In Prince Damrong’s version of Thai history, the old Siamese kingdom of Sukhothai (mid-thirteenth to mid-fifteenth centuries) was governed by egalitarian values and slavery was non-existent. When the new Thai Kingdom was established in Ayudhaya (1351-1767) the palace began to absorb the Khmer feudal tradition and adopted the practice of slavery. Even after slavery was institutionalised in Ayudhaya and later Bangkok, Prince Damrong argued that Thai paternalism had significantly altered and diluted harsh aspects of slavery and rendered the relationship between the master and his slaves as that between a benign patron and his dependents. In representing Thai history in this light, the prince paved the way for the emergence of modern Thai nationalism while at the same time constructing a ‘civilised’ image of Thai indigenous culture in the hope of de-legitimizing colonial conquest (Thanet, “Slavery and Modernity” 176-178). When King Chulalongkorn’s son, Vajiravudh, succeeded his father in 1910, he continued the process of ‘modernising’ Siam through the attempts to reorganise Thai sexual aesthetics, behaviours and gender roles to be more in line with Western notions of ‘civilisation’. King Vajiravudh was also conventionally recognised as the first promoter of Siamese nationalism. 2 As Fishel maintains: In the study of nationalism and sexuality in Siam, King Vajiravudh emerges as the predominant figure, given his multiple roles as leading actor, director and author of nationalism. Whether ruling as a modern monarchy, creating and promoting organizations like the Wild Tiger Corps and the football league, or writing numerous plays, stories, and polemical pamphlets, Vajiravudh stirred up nationalistic feelings in his subjects, drawing on the West both as 2 See works by Greene (1971) and Vella (1978) which examine the role of Vajiravudh in promoting Siamese nationalism. 3 inspiration and audience. 3 (155) In contemporary Thailand,