© 2007 UC Regents Buy this book University of California Press, one of the most distinguished univer- sity presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions. For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 2007 by The Regents of the University of California Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Germany in transit : nation and migration, 1955–2005 / edited by Deniz Göktürk, David Gramling, Anton Kaes. p. cm. — (Weimar and now ; 40) Documents translated from German. Includes bibliographical references and index. isbn-13: 978-0-520-24893-9 (cloth : alk. paper), isbn-10: 0-520-24893-7 (cloth : alk. paper); isbn-13: 978-0-520-24894-6 (pbk. : alk. paper), isbn-10: 0-520-24894-5 (pbk. : alk. paper). 1. Germany—Ethnic relations—History—20th century—Sources. 2. Germany—Ethnic relations—History—21st century—Sources. 3. Germany—Race relations—History—20th century—Sources. 4. Germany—Race relations—History—21st century—Sources. 5. Pluralism (Social sciences)—Germany—History—20th century— Sources. 6. Pluralism (Social sciences)—Germany—History—21st century—Sources. 7. Xenophobia—Germany—Sources. 8. Immi- grants—Germany—Social conditions—Sources. 9. Germany— Emigration and immigration—Sources. I. Göktürk, Deniz, 1963–. II. Gramling, David, 1976–. III. Kaes, Anton. IV. Series. DD74.G47 2007 304.8'43009045—dc22 2006011622 Manufactured in the United States of America 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 10987654321 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ansi/niso z39.48-1992 (r1997) (Permanence of Paper). CONTENTS List of Documents vii List of Illustrations xv Preface xvii List of Abbreviations xxi INTRODUCTION: A GERMAN DREAM? 1 1 WORKING GUESTS: GASTARBEITER AND GREEN CARD HOLDERS 21 2 OUR SOCIALIST FRIENDS: FOREIGNERS IN EAST GERMANY 65 3 IS THE BOAT FULL? XENOPHOBIA, RACISM, AND VIOLENCE 105 4 WHAT IS A GERMAN? LEGISLATING NATIONAL IDENTITY 149 5 RELIGION AND DIASPORA: MUSLIMS, JEWS, AND CHRISTIANS 193 6 PROMOTING DIVERSITY: INSTITUTIONS OF MULTICULTURALISM 241 7 AN IMMIGRATION COUNTRY? THE LIMITS OF CULTURE 285 8 LIVING IN TWO WORLDS? DOMESTIC SPACE, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 331 9 WRITING BACK: LITERATURE AND MULTILINGUALISM 383 10 A TURKISH GERMANY: FILM, MUSIC, AND EVERYDAY LIFE 425 EPILOGUE: GLOBAL ALREADY? 469 Chronology 497 Glossary 513 Bibliography 517 Filmography 543 Internet Resources 553 List of Credits 555 Index 561 1 WORKING GUESTS GASTARBEITER AND GREEN CARD HOLDERS THE MILLIONTH GUEST WORKER, 1964. Amid banners, dignitaries, and flashing cameras, Armando Rodrigues de Sá balances awkwardly on his welcome gift after a two-day train trip from Portugal to Cologne-Deutz. West Germany’s financial newsweekly greets him with the following words: “Señor Rodrigues, welcome to the Federal Republic. ...You shall be made as comfortable here as possible, as any guest should ex- pect. ...Now off to the fight, Torero!” E BEGIN THIS VOLUME with documents tracing the turbulent itinerary of foreign labor recruitment in West Germany from the postwar era W to the present. Though Italian seasonal workers had been em- ployed in the southwestern province of Baden-Württemberg since 1952, re- cruitment on the federal level began in January 1956. Our first text is a 1955 contract between Italy and West Germany “in the spirit of European soli- darity” that would place Italian laborers for a maximum term of nine months. Members of the center-left Social Democratic Party objected to the program, claiming that the government should reduce domestic unemploy- ment before hiring foreign labor power. Many questioned whether the post- war German infrastructure was prepared to house, transport, and provide basic services for the 100,000 new recruits expected in 1956. Despite the plan’s detractors, the “guest-worker initiative” evoked a pro- gressive vision of pan-European mobility, foreshadowing many of the transnational features of 1990s labor policy. The contract idealized a flexible, multifunctional laborer who, in contrast to unionized domestic wage earn- ers, could be transplanted to new sites and milieus with ease. This mobile Italian worker would benefit from a symbiotic relationship with the capital- rich, labor-poor West German economy, while continuing to support family members in Italy. The logic of the contract precludes classical immigration by assuming the recruits would neither desire nor need permanent civic membership in the host country. This pro-European, transnational outlook among the contract’s negotiators led them to ignore the concrete manifes- tations of the nation-state: borders, passport controls, xenophobia, and re- stricted visas. In the late 1950s, as industry leaders dubbed Italian recruitment a success, the Labor Ministry began to explore similar possibilities beyond the European Economic Community, which then had only six member states. Texts such as “The Verona Bottleneck” (1960) and “The Turks Are Coming” (1961) an- nounce the recruitment of Spanish, Portuguese, and Turkish workers. In these articles, government spokespersons and journalists question the prudence of expanding the guest-worker program beyond the European Economic Com- munity. A 1961 press release from the Confederation of German Employers’ Associations suggests that West Germany should consider expanding its eco- nomic aid to Turkey instead of expropriating that country’s labor power. WORKING GUESTS 23 24 WORKING GUESTS Like the recruitment contract with Italy, several of the documents in this chapter exemplify the more “performative” artifacts of early labor migra- tion—informational pamphlets, sociological and demographic research studies, and invitations for labor placement. For example, “How the Turkish Worker Should Behave and Defend His Character in a Foreign Country,” a Turkish-language pamphlet distributed by the Istanbul-based Turkish Labor Placement Office in 1963, advertises West Germany as an anticommunist, nationalist country that values hard work above all. Recruits, it suggests, should honor and reflect the virtues of the Turkish Republic and its Ottoman predecessors at all costs. Another text, from 1973, “Invitation for Labor Placement,” notifies the addressee of his pending placement in Western Eu- rope and instructs him to present himself for transport at a specific date and time. Other texts document the public image of immigrants in these early years—whether as caricatures, homesick displaced persons, or future citizens. Giacomo Maturi’s 1961 lecture at a nationwide meeting of employers ad- vanced a culturalist theory of guest-worker productivity, suggesting that men- tal and emotional differences between German and Italian workers required two distinctly different managerial approaches in the workplace. Conny Froboess’s popular 1962 song, “Two Little Italians,” illustrates this exoticized nostalgia, picking up on the romantic image of the homesick Italian worker. Though the nine-month “rotation principle” was supposed to be one of the structural mainstays of labor migration in West Germany, it had been all but abandoned in practice by the mid-1960s. A 1965 text, distributed by the Nuremberg-based Federal Labor Placement Office and entitled “Support for the Foreign Employee,” took initial steps to acknowledge the permanent na- ture of immigrant cultures in West Germany. This text asks politicians and citizens to support “coexistence” initiatives, occupational advancement, and cultural programs for guest workers. A further group of texts index a corpus of political journalism in West Ger- many that critiqued the inequities and political foibles arising from the guest-worker program. These texts reveal the persistence of a fundamental ambivalence in the mainstream press about the sustainability of temporary, rotation-based labor. “Big Welcome for Armando sa Rodriguez” (1964) re- ports on an official reception ceremony for the country’s 1 millionth guest worker. Later articles, including “Come, Come, Come!—Go, Go, Go!” (1970) and “Recruitment of Guest Workers Stopped” (1973), speak to the liv- ing conditions that had arisen from temporary recruitment, including work- place xenophobia and housing inequity. “The Turks Rehearsed the Upris- ing” (1973) documents a “wildcat strike” at the Ford factory in Cologne, where Turkish autoworkers led a sustained campaign against unfair labor practices and inadequate union representation. Two other texts from the postrecruitment era—Chancellor Helmut Kohl’s “Coalition of the Center” WORKING GUESTS 25 (1984) and Irina Ludat’s “A Question of the Greater Fear” (1985)—address the exclusionary after-effects of the 1973 moratorium. Ludat’s exposé cri- tiques Chancellor Kohl’s “remigrant incentive” program, which sought to pay immigrants a one-time sum to leave Germany for good. “The Card Trick” (2000) comments on the federal government’s sudden announcement of a Green Card initiative to attract high-tech workers and suggests that parliamentarians across the political spectrum have bowed to corporate interests, instead of acknowledging immigrant communities’ pleas for equal rights in employment. “The Campus That Never Sleeps” (2000) and “Carte Blanche in Green” (2002) comment on the itineraries of high-tech migrants from India and Eastern Europe and on