The Subjunctive in Celtic Studies in Historical Phonology and Morphology Mark David Darling [ΕΠΩΝΥΜΙΑ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ] | [ΔΙΕΥΘΥΝΣΗ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑΣ] Faculty of Classics University of Cambridge This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Selwyn College September 2019 Declaration This thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. For more information on the word limits for the respective Degree Committee. Word count: 79,849 I II Abstract The Subjunctive in Celtic: Studies in Historical Phonology and Morphology Mark David Darling This thesis attempts to address a number of problems related to the phonological and morphological development of the subjunctive mood in the Celtic languages, and to come to a reconstruction of the category based on all of the data attested in the documented languages. The origin of the various subjunctive morphemes attested in the Celtic languages has long been a contested matter in comparative Celtic and Indo-European linguistics, particularly regarding the question of whether the ā-subjunctive of Old Irish constitutes a shared innovation with the Italic branch of the language family. In this thesis, the data is comprehensively reassessed, attempting to reconstruct the Proto-Celtic subjunctive from the ground up. After a brief survey of the subjunctive in Indo-European more generally, the material from the relatively well-understood Insular Celtic languages is examined. Significant progress has been made in the treatment of the subjunctive in Irish and Brittonic, particularly by McCone (1991), and, more recently, Zair (2012b). Some debate still remains, however, particularly in relation to a set of irregular forms in the Brittonic languages (MW el, O/MBr. -el), which are taken by Jasanoff (1994; 2009) as conclusive proof of an Italo-Celtic ā-subjunctive. This work shows that these forms can be explained without recourse to an ā-subjunctive category otherwise unattested in Brittonic Celtic. The distinguishing characteristics of the subjunctive categories attested in Insular Celtic are then used to come to a provisional reconstruction of the category. The second half of the thesis assesses the Continental Celtic evidence for the subjunctive. As this material is more fragmentary, and there is greater controversy as to its interpretation, first the historical phonology of Gaulish and Celtiberian is examined, in order to set criteria by which subjunctive forms may be identified. The possible evidence for the subjunctive in these languages is then analysed on a case-by-case basis, in order to establish whether it is truly admissible as evidence of the category. It is found that many of the forms previously identified in the scholarship as subjunctive are likely to have been misinterpreted. Nonetheless, there is a small but significant body of evidence for the category in Continental Celtic. This is finally brought together with the Insular Celtic material to establish a reconstruction of the Proto-Celtic subjunctive. The possible consequences of this reconstruction to that of the Indo-European subjunctive are then briefly assessed. III IV Acknowledgements There are many people without whose input and support this thesis would never have been written. A significant number of those people are probably at least as surprised as I am that it has been written at all. Yet here we are… My thanks must go first to those who have supervised this thesis. Primus inter pares is Dr Torsten Meißner, who first suggested that there might be something of interest to say about subjunctives. Needless to say, the thesis took on a life of its own and has rather changed since our first meeting, but Torsten has always shown heroic patience with my meanderings over the last few years and has ever been willing to discuss the messy intricacies of Celtic philology. Dr Nick Zair very generously kept a watchful eye on me while Torsten was on leave and has always been willing to talk through problematic etymologies. Finally, I must thank Professor James Clackson for helping to guide me through the final few months of writing up, and for simultaneously encouraging me and pushing me towards the finish line. All three of you have my deepest thanks. I must also thank Dr Rupert Thompson for starting me down this road when, almost ten years ago, he decided to give me the opportunity to study for my BA at Selwyn. Who would have thought I would be this difficult to get rid of? Alongside these three, many others in the Faculty of Classics have helped make the process of writing the PhD more bearable, and even occasionally enjoyable. Over the past few years, the E- caucus has often provided much-needed reminders that there is more to this historical linguistics thing than just an obscure corner of the verbal system of Celtic, through seminars, reading groups, and, most importantly, post-seminar discussions in the pub. Among current members of the caucus, I should like to thank Dr Tim Barnes, Krishnan Ram-Prasad, and Edoardo Chiattelli for the many IPA-fuelled, stimulating discussions of matters Indo-European. Natalia Elvira, thanks for keeping my seat in the library warm on those very rare occasions when I’ve not made it in, but more importantly for your friendship over the past years. As for past members of the caucus, I must particularly thank Dr Matthew Scarborough, Katie Shields, and Valentina Lunardi. Your friendship made the various tribulations of the past few years much easier to bear. Outside of E-caucus, the graduate community of the Faculty of Classics all deserve thanks, not least for accepting this weird, accidental sort-of-Celticist in your midst. Particular thanks are also due to a few and probably more than I will remember to name here. Dr Graham Andrews: the past several years would have been much more difficult without your friendship. Thank you for the camaraderie, evenings of tipsy singing of Breton folksongs, and for being brave enough to proof- read this monstrosity. Julia Hurley: I can’t imagine how my MPhil year would have gone, had it not been for you and Graham keeping me on the straight-and-narrow. And thanks for V (grudgingly) tolerating my vegetarianism! Hanneke Reijnierse-Salisbury: quite apart from your friendship, thank you for being willing to bind the first iteration of this thing. I can imagine that my turning up at the student registry with a hundred-odd loose leaves of A4 may have prompted some consternation. Outside of the faculty, I should thank my colleagues in Ely Cathedral Choir. Making music with you all provides a very welcome break from sitting and staring at books, rubbing my temples in the hope that they might eventually make sense! I must particularly thank Harley Jones for his proof-reading, and Jonathan Midgley for his willingness to listen with (at least feigned) interest to me talking about work in the pub after evensong. Among my musical friends, I must also thank Jess Kinney for the beer, banter, and being able occasionally to remind me that there’s more to life than a Gaulish etymology. My parents, Brian and Frances, deserve acknowledgment for their support throughout my education, and for encouraging me to have confidence in myself. I can’t imagine that I would have reached this point, had it not been for all you have done to help me on my way. I would also like thank Anna Lippert for her support and care. Even if I had never managed to submit the thesis, I’m pretty sure meeting you would have made it worth it. Finally, I must express my gratitude to the late Henry Beaumont, MBE. Without his kindness in teaching me Greek during my year in St Davids, I can’t imagine that I would have made it to Cambridge as an undergraduate in the first place. I would like to dedicate this work to his memory, in the hope that it is worthy of it. VI Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................................................................................... I Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................................. III Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................................... V Contents ............................................................................................................................................................................. VII Bibliographical Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... X 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................