THE SECRET WAR: THE FORGOTTEN HMONG HEROES by Pa Nhia Xiong B.A. (California State University, Fresno) 2013 M.A. (California State University, Fresno) 2015 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Education Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership at Fresno State Kremen School of Education and Human Development California State University, Fresno May 2020 ii Pa Nhia Xiong May 2020 Educational Leadership THE SECRET WAR: THE FORGOTTEN HMONG HEROES Abstract Many K-12 and higher educational establishments in the Central Valley of California are Hmong-serving institutions. The Central Valley has been the new home to thousands of Hmong refugees who arrived in the United States (U.S.) after the Secret War. However, the Hmong people’s history and war-torn experiences remain invisible in the educational system and a mystery to society at large. Therefore, it is essential for our nation to honor the Hmong boys and men who fought fiercely alongside the U.S. soldiers, many of whom lost their lives. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency recruited the Hmong men and boys to fight alongside the Americans and against the communists in Laos from 1961 to 1975. This war was known as the Secret War, America’s deadliest war. The Hmong people have endured and overcome great challenges throughout their history of migration before resettling in the U.S. and around the world. This qualitative study used narrative inquiry to highlight the lived experiences of 10 Hmong soldiers who served in the Secret War. This study highlighted the contributions of Hmong soldiers in the Secret War and provided a better understanding of how their war- torn experiences have influenced their educational aspirations. Four themes emerged from the interviews: (1) life experiences of Hmong soldiers during the Secret War were difficult and often perilous; (2) family, religion, and culture were vitally important; (3) the Hmong soldiers’ transitions from Laos to a new life in America were challenging and full of obstacles; and (4) the effort was worth the sacrifice. iii Copyright by Pa Nhia Xiong May 2020 iv California State University, Fresno Kremen School of Education and Human Development Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership This dissertation was presented by Pa Nhia Xiong It was defended on April 30, 2020 and approved by: Christina V. Luna, Chair Educational Leadership Susan Tracz Educational Leadership Soua Xiong Student Affairs and College Counseling v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank my husband, Yang Lee, for his love, support, and patience throughout my educational endeavor. “Thank you for loving me and standing by my side through all of these years. Thank you for always encouraging me to pursue my educational dream. No words can describe my love and appreciation for you.” A special thanks to my four children: Soly, Lovely, Nouchia, and Chali. “Thank you for giving me a purpose in life. Thank you for being the rainbow in my sky and giving me strength during raining days.” To my beautiful family, “You are my world.” I would like to thank my father- and mother-in-law, brothers-in-law, and sisters-in-law for their unconditional support. “Thank you supporting me and motivating me. I am extremely blessed to have all of you in my life. Please remember that I love and care about each and every one of you. I would not have achieved my educational goals without all of you.” To my wonderful in-laws, “Thank you for raising me and loving me as your own. I truly value your endless love and support throughout my educational journey. I love you dearly.” I would like to thank my father and mother for bringing me into this world and inspiring me to never give up. “Thank you for showering me with your love and protecting me against all odds. I could never repay you for your unconditional love and support.” To my father who thought that obtaining a doctorate degree was only a dream, “Daddy, this degree is for you. There is no degree in this world that would amount to your kind-heart. For all that you have endured throughout your lifetime, you deserve nothing but the highest honor. Thank you for raising five strong, smart, and beautiful daughters.” To my five “superwomen” sisters, “Thank you for taking care of our parents so I could focus on school. I am vi thankful that our parents raised us to be strong and loving individuals. May we continue to love one another through thick and thin until the end.” To my mother and brother in heaven, “My heart aches knowing that you could not physically be here to celebrate this special moment with me, but I know you are always with me. I know that both of you are so proud of me. I miss you more than you will ever know. Someday, we will meet again…” I would like to thank my wonderful dissertation committee: Chair, Dr. Christina V. Luna, and my committee members, Dr. Susan Tracz and Dr. Soua Xiong for their guidance, support, and motivation. “Thank you for believing in me and inspiring me to become a scholar. Thank you for your devotion to my dissertation. I am honored to have you as my mentors. This is the beginning of many more publications.” I would like to thank Dr. Chia Youyee Vang for allowing me to utilize her interview protocol to guide my research study. “Thank you for your kindness and willingness to share your knowledge, expertise, and passion. Thank you for being a role model for Hmong scholars and women. You are an inspiration.” I would like to thank Misty Her and Lar Yang from the Hmong Story 40 Project for their support and contribution to my research study. “Thank you for sharing your priceless photo collections, books, and historical information with me. Thank you for your commitment in showcasing the history and experiences of the Hmong people. Your work is incredibly important and will continue to inspire and empower the next generations of Hmong children.” Last but not least, I wish to honor my participants and all of the Hmong soldiers who fought fiercely or died during and after the Secret War. This research study is dedicated to all of the brave Hmong soldiers and young boys who were deprived of educational opportunities. “My research study is dedicated to you for vii your heroic contribution during the Secret War. Your blood, tears, and sacrifices will not be forgotten. Now, you have a place in American history. You are not only my heroes, but heroes to the Hmong and American people throughout the world.” viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 Positionality Perspective .................................................................................. 2 Purpose............................................................................................................ 7 Resilience and Asian Critical Theory Conceptual Framework ......................... 9 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............................................... 12 Who Are the Hmong People? ........................................................................ 12 The Americans’ Promise to Hmong People .............................................. 14 Hmong People Fled from Laos to Thailand for Refuge ............................ 16 Hmong Refugee Resettlement in the United States ................................... 19 Financial and Educational Assistance for Refugees .................................. 21 Mental Health and Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome (SUNDS) Among Hmong Men in the United States............................ 22 Hmong People Value Education in the United States ............................... 24 Hmong Parents’ Encouragement and Influence on Their Children’s Education ............................................................................................ 25 Stressors that Impact Hmong Students’ Educational Triumph .................. 28 Hmong People Are Resilient .................................................................... 29 Summary ....................................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 32 Data Collection .............................................................................................. 32 Hmong Story 40 Project Contribution ...................................................... 34 ix Individual Interviews ............................................................................... 35 Data Analysis ................................................................................................ 36 Compensation of Participants ........................................................................ 36 Mental Health Resources ............................................................................... 37 Significance of the Study ............................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS/OUTCOMES .............................................................. 39 Demographics ............................................................................................... 40 The Life Experiences of Hmong