We Have Had Very Pearlous Times and Lost Much but Through

We Have Had Very Pearlous Times and Lost Much but Through

‘We have had very Pearlous times and lost Much But through Devine Providance is Blessed with sufficent of the Nessarys of Life’: A study of subject-verb concord in 18th-century Ulster Anne Sætersdal Myklestad Master’s thesis in English Linguistics Department of Foreign Languages University of Bergen November 2015 II Summary in Norwegian Denne masteroppgaven utforsker samsvarsbøyning mellom subjekt og verbal i irsk engelsk i provinsen Ulster i perioden 1741-1800. Det engelske språket omfatter flere ikke-standard samsvarsbøyningssystemer. Særlig utbredt er varierende bruk av verbbøyningsendelsen -s (heretter s-form) i kontekster der standard engelsk krever at stammen av verbet står uten suffiks, for eksempel i setninger med flertallssubjekt (som i The boy/they writes/is/was). Tidligere studier av samsvarsbøyning i Ulster på 1700-tallet er basert på små datasett, tar kun et fåtall mulige faktorer i betraktning og tester ikke resultat for signifikans. Denne studien søker å gi økt kunnskap om samsvarsbøyning i Ulster på 1700-tallet. Studien er basert på 4747 forekomster av samsvarsbøyning i brev hentet fra Corpus of Irish English Correspondence (McCafferty & Amador-Moreno, under bearbeidelse). For å gi en grundig beskrivelse av fenomenet, utforsker studien i hvilken grad frekvensen av ikke-standard s-form påvirkes av en rekke lingvistiske og sosiale faktorer nevnt i tidligere studier av samsvarsbøyning i historiske og nåtidige dialekter i og utenfor Ulster. Hovedfunn i studien er at bruk av ikke-standard s-form i dataene fungerer i henhold til det opprinnelig nord-britiske samsvarssystemet the Northern Subject Rule (‘den nordlige samsvarsregelen’, NSR). Ifølge NSR kan s-form forekomme i setninger med entalls/flertalls substantivfrasesubjekt, men ikke pronomenfrasesubjekt (den såkalte NP/PRO-forskjellen eller Type of subject constraint), med mindre pronomenfrasen står adskilt fra det finitte verbet i setningen (såkalt Position to subject constraint). I motsetning til studier som bruker data fra 1800-tallet (McCafferty 2003) og 1900-tallet (Pietsch 2005a), finner denne studien at PSC ikke har noen innvirkning på frekvensen s-form i kontekster med substantivfrasesubjekt i flertall. Det foreslås at dette antyder at bruken av PSC har endret seg over tid i Ulster. Studien viser videre at faktorene type substantiv-subjekt og lengden på substantiv- frasen i et subjekt (subject heaviness) påvirker frekvensen av ikke-standard s-form. Det blir ikke funnet noen sammenheng mellom det relative pronomenet og s-form. Dette bryter med tendenser i rapportert i tidligere forskning (f.eks. Montgomery 1995; Pietsch 2005a) og antyder at det relative pronomenet ikke bør behandles som et subjekt i fremtidige studier. NSR blir videre funnet å være solid i data fra områder som antas å ha vært dominert av etterkommere av skotske bosettere, samt i områder hvor engelske etterkommere antas å ha vært i flertall. Resultatet støtter hypotesen om at NSR ble brakt til Ulster med skotske og engelske bosettere på 1700-tallet (the founder population hypothesis, McCafferty 2003), og bidrar dermed til forståelsen av hvordan dette grammatiske systemet oppsto i irsk engelsk. III IV Acknowledgements This thesis would never have been possible without the supervision and help from several people. First and foremost thanks are due to my supervisor, Kevin McCafferty, whose advice and encouragement have followed me during the whole process. Thanks for the interesting discussions, your critical reading and for giving me access to the unpublished Corpus of Irish English Correspondence (McCafferty & Amador-Moreno in preparation) and other useful material. Any errors in the thesis are mine. I also wish to thank Øyvind Tveit, who helped me making illustrations. Finally, thanks are due to my family, and in particular Sondre and my parents, for all their encouragement during the process, and to my dear children for being so patient. V VI Contents Summary in Norwegian ....................................................................................................................... III Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... V Contents ............................................................................................................................................. VII List of tables .......................................................................................................................................... X List of figures ...................................................................................................................................... XI Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................................... XII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 The study of subject-verb concord................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ............................................................................. 7 2.1 Nonstandard subject-verb concord systems in varieties of English .............................................. 7 2.1.1 SVC phenomena involving variable usage of -s/-Ø in the British Isles ................................. 7 2.1.2 The Northern Subject Rule - origin ..................................................................................... 11 2.1.3 The Northern Subject Rule - geographic spread .................................................................. 12 2.2 The historical-linguistic context to the study .............................................................................. 14 2.2.1 The history of English input in Ireland ................................................................................ 14 2.2.2 Scottish and English settlements in Ulster and input SVC patterns ..................................... 15 2.2.3 Degree of dialect/language contact in Ulster ....................................................................... 19 2.2.4 Summary of the historical-linguistic context and a comment on the status of the varieties in the contact situation in Ulster ....................................................................................................... 20 2.3 Previous research on SVC in Ulster ........................................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Approaches to the study of SVC .......................................................................................... 21 2.3.2 Studies on subject-verb concord in 16-17th-century data .................................................... 23 2.3.3 Studies on subject-verb concord in 18th-century data ......................................................... 27 2.3.4 Studies on subject-verb concord in 19th-century data ......................................................... 30 2.3.5 Studies on subject-verb concord in present-day varieties .................................................... 34 2.4 Discussion of background research and formulation of hypotheses ........................................... 36 2.4.1 Discussion of research relevant to research question 1: The strength of the NSR................ 37 2.4.2 Discussion of research relevant to research question 2: Other factors than the NSR-related factors (NP/PRO, PSC) that may affect the distribution of verbal -s ............................................ 38 2.4.3 Discussion of research relevant to research question 3: Geographic spread of the NSR and the discussion on how the NSR emerged in Ulster ....................................................................... 41 CHAPTER 3 DATA AND METHODS ............................................................................................ 45 3.1 Data ............................................................................................................................................ 45 3.1.1 The CORPUS OF IRISH ENGLISH CORRESPONDENCE (CORIECOR) ........................ 45 VII 3.1.2 Criteria for the selection of texts from CORIECOR ............................................................ 46 3.1.3 Qualities of the data ............................................................................................................. 47 3.1.4 Considerations regarding representativeness of the data ...................................................... 49 3.2 Methods ...................................................................................................................................... 50 3.2.1 Delimiting the variables ....................................................................................................... 50 3.2.2 Procedure for extracting data and coding............................................................................. 51 3.2.3 Coding categories for independent variables in GoldVarb .................................................. 52 3.3 Analyses ..................................................................................................................................... 59 3.3.1 Procedure analysis (steps A-C) ............................................................................................ 59 3.3.2 Treatment of tokens with

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