The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School GENDER AND LEADERSHIP OF AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES: THE CASE OF CAMBODIA A Thesis in Rural Sociology by Sovanneary Huot © 2020 Sovanneary Huot Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science May 2020 The thesis of Sovanneary Huot was reviewed and approved* by the following: Leif Jensen Distinguished Professor of Rural Sociology and Demography Thesis Advisor Ann R. Tickamyer Professor Emerita of Rural Sociology, Sociology, Demography, and Gender, Women’s, and Sexuality Studies Ricky M. Bates Professor of Horticulture David R. Ader Research Assistant Professor, The University of Tennessee Kathryn Brasier Professor of Rural Sociology Director of Graduate Studies in Rural Sociology iii ABSTRACT Gender inequality in the agriculture sector remains a global concern. There is increasing evidence that having women in leadership roles is critical to foster gender equity. Cambodia is marked by a lack of women representatives in leadership and decision-making positions at every level, a problem that is clearly seen in agriculture. There are only a few reports on women and leadership in Cambodia. In particular, there is a need to better understand financial and time constraints for women in acquiring leadership positions. In this study, I examine the representation of women in leadership positions, document the extent and nature of women’s decision-making power, and describe the barriers they face in acquiring and continuing in leadership roles. Qualitative data were gathered through focus group discussions and key informant interviews within two agricultural cooperatives in Siem Reap and Battambang province in Cambodia. This thesis finds that women in these two cooperatives do have leadership opportunities and seem to enjoy equal power as male leaders. However, women face challenges in acquiring and participating in leadership roles. Obstacles include domestic work burden, which limits time for activities outside the farmstead, low education, which inhibits capacity and confidence in being able to serve as leaders, and lack of proper compensation tied to leadership positions. The study concludes that if government agencies, policymakers, donors, NGOs, and others want women to play a greater leadership role, they need to reduce the interrelated constraints of time poverty, lack of capacity, and insufficient compensation. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... vii List of Boxes ............................................................................................................................ viii List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 The case of Cambodia ...................................................................................................... 3 Chapter 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 8 Concept of leadership ...................................................................................................... 9 Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................... 11 Gender Transformative Approach (GTA) ................................................................ 11 Women’s empowerment theory ............................................................................... 17 Gender leadership in Cambodia ....................................................................................... 22 Barriers to women in acquiring leadership roles ..................................................... 22 Constraining social and cultural norms ............................................................ 23 Gender discrimination in education ................................................................. 25 Family duties and leadership work burdens ..................................................... 30 Economic barriers ............................................................................................. 31 Research question ........................................................................................................... 33 Chapter 3 Methods .................................................................................................................. 34 Goal ................................................................................................................................. 34 Women in Agriculture Network (WAgN) Cambodia ...................................................... 35 Research setting .............................................................................................................. 36 The setting of Khom Khnat Samaki Rong Roeung Agricultural Cooperative (KKSRAC) ............................................................................................................... 37 The setting of Tasey Samaki Agricultural Cooperative (TSAC) ............................. 39 Research approach .......................................................................................................... 40 Research sampling .......................................................................................................... 42 Participant recruitment .................................................................................................... 43 Data gathering strategy ................................................................................................... 44 Focus group discussion ........................................................................................... 44 Key informant interview ......................................................................................... 45 v Data analysis strategy ...................................................................................................... 46 Transcription ........................................................................................................... 46 Coding ..................................................................................................................... 47 Ethical issues ................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 4 The Overview of the Two Cooperatives ................................................................ 49 Khom Khnat Samaki Rong Roeung Agricultural Cooperative (KKSRAC) .................... 51 Tasey Samaki Agricultural Cooperative (TSAC) ............................................................ 57 Chapter 5 Interpretation and Analysis of Findings ................................................................. 65 Leadership opportunity ................................................................................................... 65 Representation and organization of women in leadership positions ............................... 67 Barriers to women in acquiring leadership roles ............................................................. 70 Domestic work burden ............................................................................................ 70 Lack of capacity and low education ........................................................................ 72 Working without salary ........................................................................................... 75 Motivation and confidence .............................................................................................. 80 Women in decision-making ............................................................................................ 82 Men’s perspective toward female leadership .................................................................. 87 Mechanisms to increase the involvement of women already in leadership positions ..... 88 Capacity building ............................................................................................................ 90 Benefits in joining agricultural cooperatives .................................................................. 93 Bargaining power .................................................................................................... 94 Learning new agricultural techniques ..................................................................... 94 Improving food security and nutrition ..................................................................... 97 Making income, reducing poverty ........................................................................... 99 Easy accessing to credit services ............................................................................. 102 Chapter 6 Discussion and Conclusion .................................................................................... 106 Restatement of the problem ............................................................................................ 106 Restatement of the methods ...........................................................................................