PARADIGM SHIFT: HOW THE EVOLUTION OF TWO GENERATIONS OF HOME CONSOLES, ARCADES, AND COMPUTERS INFLUENCED AMERICAN CULTURE, 1985-1995 By Jason Terence Wiley A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY University of Central Oklahoma Spring, 2016 iii Abstract Author: Jason Terence Wiley Thesis Chair: Dr. Patricia Loughlin Title of Thesis: Paradigm Shift: How the Evolution of Two Generations of Home Consoles, Arcades, and Computers Influenced American Culture, 1985-1995 Abstract: As of 2016, unlike many popular media forms found here in the United States, video games possess a unique influence, one that gained its own a large widespread appeal, but also its own distinct cultural identity created by millions of fans both here stateside and across the planet. Yet, despite its significant contributions, outside of the gaming’s arcade golden age of the early 1980s, the history of gaming post Atari shock goes rather unrepresented as many historians simply refuse to discuss the topic for trivial reasons thus leaving a rather noticeable gap within the overall history. One such important aspect not covered by the majority of the scholarship and the primary focus of thesis argues that the history of early modern video games in the North American market did not originate during the age of Atari in the 1970s and early 1980s. Instead, the real genesis of today’s market and popular gaming culture began with the creation and establishment of the third and fourth generation of video games, which firmly solidified gaming as both a multi-billion dollar industry and as an accepted form of entertainment in the United States. This project focuses on the ten-year resurrection of the US video game industry from 1985 to 1995. Written as a case study, the project looks into the three main popular hardware iv mediums of the late 1980s and 1990s through a pseudo-business, cultural, and technological standpoint that ran parallel with the current events at the time. Through this evaluation of the home consoles, personal computers, and the coin operated arcade machines, gaming in America transformed itself from a perceived fad into a serious multi-billion dollar industry while at the same time, slowly gained popular acceptance. Furthermore, this study will examine the country's love-hate relationship with gaming by looking into reactions towards a Japanese-dominated market, the coming of popular computer gaming, the influence of the bit-wars, and the issue of violence that aided in the establishment of the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB). In order to undertake such a massive endeavor, the project utilizes various sources that include newspapers, magazine articles, US government documents, scholarly articles, video game manuals, commercials, and popular websites to complete the work. Furthermore, another vital source came from firsthand experience playing several of these popular video games from across the decades in question, which include such consoles as the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo, Genesis, home computer, and several notable arcade titles. The project's goal and its four main chapters serve as a historical viewpoint of towards neglected video game industry during the third and fourth generation of gaming and the influence it possess in the United States. For far too long, historians have ignored this area of discussion as a viable topic. Perhaps this case study will encourage further exploration and help curb the rampant imbalance between the pure but nearly non-existent historical accounts versus the ubiquitous non-historical accounts. Nevertheless, for this project's primary contribution this project it takes the numerous sources available and expands upon the already written upon history, or in this case the period of video rebirth and regrowth after the North American video game crash of 1983. v In Paradigm Shift: How the Evolution of Two Generations of Home Consoles, Arcades, and Computers Influenced the United States examines the often-overlooked early modern history of video games from 1985-1995 and how they would go on to become a larger part of American culture. Each chapter attempts to explain the growing influence gaming has had via home console, computer, and arcades in the US market, and in turn show the origins of today’s modern gaming market. Chapter one, "Bleeps, Glitches, and Literature: The Varied Historiography of Video Games" reviews the unique but varied literature surrounding gaming. With such a controversial field, the chapter’s investigates the many facets of such an unusual topic that includes exploring the bias nature of non-historian academics to the unusual situation surrounding its primary and secondary sources makes researching video games both an interesting and frustrating endeavor. Chapter two, "Resurrection: The Unexpected Success of Nintendo and the Rebirth of Video Game Media" focuses on the resurrection of gaming post Atari shock to 1990. Covering the importance of gaming’s unexpected return to provenience, a heavy portion of the chapter features the struggle, role, and influence Nintendo played during the mid to late 1980s and their leadership in turning a dead market back into a multi-billion dollar industry. Also featured includes a study of the early computers from inception to the Microsoft operating systems, and how these developments in technology influenced computer gaming during the 1980s and 1990s through both its shareware and the numerous retail games available. Finally, the chapter looks into the growth and resurgence of the late 1980s arcades went on to a unique impact on the video game industry. While the chapter does look into some of the titles made at this time, the bulk of the discussion follows the influential video game developer id Software and how their games vi Wolfenstein 3D and Doom became catalysts for the niche market's growth as well as a source of controversy. Chapter three, "For a Few Bits More: The Bit Wars and Video Gaming in the Early 1990s" reviews one of the industry’s most turbulent times. Coined from the bitter console war between Nintendo and Sega from late 1991 until 1995; the chapter covers video games shifting from its perceived family friendly image cultivated during the 1980s to embracing a much wider demographic consisting of transitioning teenagers and adults as well as creating games with themes more suited towards their tastes. The chapter also continues the trend of looking into the three popular mediums as in the case of its largest at the time, the home console market, was embroiled in a brutal internal war. Splitting dedicated gamers into brand loyal camps, the battle between Nintendo, Sega, and several other minor console creators served as the major marquee attraction as each company attempted to sway potential customers through flashy advertising, better games, and claims of possessing the superior product. On the other hand, the home console war only encompasses one side of this history as the chapter also explores the unexpected success of the arcades, which climaxed with the fighting game craze and launched many third party licensee games into the national spotlight such as Street Fighter II: The World Warrior and Mortal Kombat. In addition and occurring parallel to the growth of the console machines, computer gaming also slowly picked up speed with exclusive edgier games featuring more violent and inappropriate themes not seen with the more family friendly consoles at this time. The final chapter, "Games on Trial: The Issue of Violence in Video games, the Hearing on Violent Video Games and the Creation of the Video Game Rating System" discusses the pressing issue of violence in video games during the early 1990s. Perceived as a major problem, vii after years of questionable video games and marketing tactics, the United States Congress finally forced the issue and confronted the major gaming companies. Under Senator Joe Lieberman's inquiry over such games as Mortal Kombat, Night Trap, Lethal Enforcers, and coupled with growing public concern over the popular influence video games had over their children resulted in the creation of a unified rating system and cemented their reputation of being forever associated with controversy. Finally, the significance of Paradigm Shift: How the Evolution of Two Generations of Home Consoles, Arcades, and Computers Influenced American Culture, 1985-1995, comes down to one word, acceptance. Despite the controversy it generated before and during the ten critical years of its rebirth, what the gaming industry did right was breaking the notion that video games were simply a popular craze. Unlike the second generation that only fed this belief, the third and fourth generation of gaming proved this assumption wrong. With countless successful launches of influential games across the decade, video games slowly gained the acceptance of both gamers and non-gamers alike allowing gaming to ingrain itself within the American culture. By 1995, the foundation of both the modern gaming industry and culture came into existence, and it would only become greater as the years progressed thanks to the efforts of Nintendo, Sega, and countless other developers and licensees that kept video games from falling to the wayside during this period of growth and uncertainty. viii Table of Contents Introduction...................................................................................................................................1