CONTESTED NATIONALISMS: TURKISH NATIONALIST PROPAGANDA IN THE SANJAK OF ALEXANDRETTA Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by ESRA DEMİRCİ AKYOL In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA December 2015 ABSTRACT CONTESTED NATIONALISMS: TURKISH NATIONALIST PROPAGANDA IN THE SANJAK OF ALEXANDRETTA Demirci Akyol, Esra PhD., Department of History Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. M. Akif Kireçci December 2015 This thesis analyzes the Turkish nationalist propaganda carried out in the Sanjak of Alexandretta during the process of annexation to demonstrate that the Sanjak provides a special case for the study of Republican Turkish nationalism by showing its highly pragmatic and speculative political/ideological discourse in the 1930s. The ways with which the Sanjak region was integrated into the newly defined “Turkish nation” are examined by utilizing archival documents, secondary sources as well as oral history interviews. The special case of the migration of the conservative Sunni Turks to Damascus and the nationalist propaganda towards the Alawite population of the region are brought forward as examples for the pragmatically inclusive nature of Kemalist nationalism. Key Words: Sanjak of Alexandretta, Hatay, Turkish Nationalism, Kemalist Reforms, Annexation of Hatay, Nationalist Propaganda i ÖZET MİLLİYETÇİLİKLERİN REKABETİ: İSKENDERUN SANCAĞI’NDA TÜRK MİLLİYETÇİLİĞİ PROPAGANDASI Demirci Akyol, Esra Doktora, Tarih Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Yrd. Doç. Dr. M. Akif Kireçci Aralık 2015 Bu tez, İskenderun Sancağında ilhak sürecinde yürütülen Türk milliyetçilik propagandasını inceleyerek 1930’larda Sancak’ta kullanılan faydacı ve spekülatif Türk milliyetçiliği politik diskurunun Sancak konusunu Türk milliyetçiliği çalışmaları kapsamında özel bir vaka haline getirdiğini gözler önüne sermeyi amaçlar. Sancak bölgesinin yeni tanımlanan “Türk milleti”ne nasıl entegre edildiği arşiv materyalleri, ikincil kaynaklar ve sözlü tarih görüşmeleri kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Muhafazakâr Sünni Türklerin, Kemalist reformların bölgede uygulanmasına bir tepki olarak, Hatay’dan Şam’a göç etmesi ve bölgede yaşayan Alevilere yönelik uygulanan milliyetçilik propagandası Kemalist milliyetçiliğin faydacı/içermeci yapısına örnek olarak verilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: İskenderun Sancağı, Hatay, Türk Milliyetçiliği, Kemalist Reformlar, Hatay’ın İlhakı, Millyetçi Propaganda ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who deserve my gratitude with their support during the writing process of this thesis. First of all, I would like to thank my advisor Assist. Prof. Dr. M. Akif Kireçci for his guidance which helped me shape my ideas into a coherent work. I would also like to seize the opportunity to thank Assist. Prof. Dr. Oktay Özel, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hakan Kırımlı, Assist. Prof. Dr. Selim Tezcan and Prof. Dr. Ömer Turan for their guidance and instructive feedback. For the research process of this thesis, I would like to start by thanking TUBITAK for providing financial support through doctoral fellowship as well as grants to attend international conferences abroad. I also express my thanks to the personnel of the Centre des Archives Diplomatiques de Nantes (CADN) for their kind help during my research. I am also grateful to my interviewees in Hatay for their detailed accounts that helped me in shaping my approach to the subject. My greatest debt and gratitude, however, go to my entire family. Specifically, my mother and father allowed me to complete this thesis by taking care of the rest of my worldly concerns. My husband has supported me throughout the process of writing by his love and understanding. Most importantly, my two daughters endured sometimes not being the center of my attention. It is to them that I dedicate this thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... I ÖZET................................................................................................................................. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ III TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 4 1.1 A Brief History ...................................................................................................... 12 1.2 Sources and Methodology ..................................................................................... 16 1.4 Literature Survey ................................................................................................... 25 1.5 Structure ................................................................................................................ 29 CHAPTER 2: THE TRANSITION FROM THE BILAD AL-SHAM TO THE PROVINCE OF HATAY ................................................................................................ 32 2.1 Ottoman Reign (1517-1918) ................................................................................. 34 2.2 The Region in the Post World War I Era .............................................................. 42 2.3 The Emergence of the Sanjak as an International Issue ........................................ 50 2.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 65 CHAPTER 3: CLASH OF TWO NATIONALISMS: ARAB AND TURKISH NATIONALISMS IN THE SANJAK OF ALEXANDRETTA ..................................... 67 3.1 Theoretical Approaches to Nationalism ................................................................ 69 3.2 Origins of Turkish Nationalism ............................................................................ 73 3.2.1 Ottomanism .................................................................................................... 77 3.2.2 Turanism ........................................................................................................ 78 3.2.3 Turkish Nationalism-Turkism ........................................................................ 80 3.2.4 Kemalist Nationalism ..................................................................................... 83 3.2.4.1 Kemalist Nationalism and Ethnicity ....................................................... 86 3.3 Origins of Arab Nationalism ................................................................................. 89 3.4 Emergence and Evolvement of Arab Nationalism in Syria .................................. 93 3.4.1 An Intellectual and an Educator: Butrus al-Bustani (1819-1883) .................. 94 3.4.2 Intellectual Life in Syria............................................................................... 100 3.4.2.1 Salafis and Arabists ............................................................................... 101 3.4.2.2 Syria and the World War I .................................................................... 106 3.4.2.3 Establishment of the Syrian Kingdom .................................................. 108 1 3.5 Arab Nationalism in the Sanjak: Zaki Al-Arsuzi and his Thought ..................... 109 3.5.1 Ambiguous Situation of the Sanjak and Al-Arsuzi’s Reaction .................... 110 3.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 115 CHAPTER 4: TURKISH NATIONALIST PROPAGANDA IN THE SANJAK OF ALEXANDRETTA....................................................................................................... 118 6.1 Propaganda Strategies to Convince the Sanjak People ....................................... 121 6.1.1 The Print Media............................................................................................ 122 6.1.1.1 Yenigün ................................................................................................. 123 6.1.1.2 Print Media in the Republic .................................................................. 132 6.1.2 Propaganda by Other Means ........................................................................ 134 6.1.2.1 Selamet-i Belde Cemiyeti ..................................................................... 135 6.1.2.2 Gençspor Kulübü .................................................................................. 136 6.1.2.3 Bekir Efendi Kütüphanesi ..................................................................... 137 6.2 Kemalist Reforms in the Sanjak .......................................................................... 138 6.2.1 The New Alphabet ....................................................................................... 139 6.2.2 Reactions to the New Alphabet .................................................................... 142 6.2.3 Hat Reform ................................................................................................... 143 6.2.4 Reactions to the Hat Reform ........................................................................ 144 6.3 Ideology, Historiography and Language: the Turkish History Thesis and the Sun Language Theory ...................................................................................................... 151 6.3.1 Institutionalization of Turkish Historiography............................................. 154 6.3.2 Türk Tarih