JUNE 2008 . VOL 1 . ISSUE 7 Constructing Takfir: accept takfir as necessary and the broader he eschewed a radical interpretation he is able to construct his definition of of Islam and jihad.11 While in the From `Abdullah `Azzam takfir. training camps of Afghanistan, `Azzam to Djamel Zitouni interacted with jihadist leaders from Dr. `Abdullah `Azzam around the globe as he continued By Shane Drennan `Abdullah `Azzam is considered to be espousing his messages of defense and the godfather of the Afghan jihad. His resistance. It was in this context that he on april 2, 2008, jihadist websites posted writings calling for the unification of produced his two most famous works an “open interview” with Dr. Ayman the umma through defensive jihad, and on jihad: Defence of Muslim Lands and Join the al-Zawahiri wherein the al-Qa`ida his Maktab al-Khidmat (Services Bureau), Caravan. leader fielded a number of often hostile created the organizational archetype for questions. The first, and arguably the the current manifestation of the global Definition of Takfir most important, concerned al-Qa`ida’s Salafi-jihad and al-Qa`ida specifically. `Azzam did not excommunicate invocation of takfir (excommunicating or Although `Azzam’s Salafi-jihadi ideology Muslims. For him, defending Muslim declaring a Muslim an apostate, which was considered radical by most lands from invasion by kuffar (infidels is punishable by death): academics, his eschatological grounding or nonbelievers) and uniting the umma made him relatively moderate compared was paramount, and takfir only served Excuse me, Mr. Zawahiri, but to many of the jihadists4 who answered to create fitna (division). His opinion of who is it who is killing with his invitation to Afghanistan,5 especially takfiri jihadists suggests that a deficiency Your Excellency’s blessing the regarding takfir. in formal training in Shari`a may innocents in Baghdad, Morocco result in expansive violence through and Algeria? Do you consider the Religious Training incorrect or incomplete understandings killing of women and children to `Azzam enveloped himself in Islam and of Islam: “They, because of their lack of be Jihad?...Why have you—to this Shari`a throughout his entire life. Even knowledge, are simply youth with much day—not carried out any strike as a child he was considered “serious” zeal, and the hearts of these youth were in Israel? Or is it easier to kill and “pious.”6 His higher education made to follow their desires.”12 `Azzam’s Muslims in the markets?1 focus was Shari`a, earning a bachelor’s7 Islamic training even trumped political and a master’s degree8 in Shari`a pressures of infighting among the This article explores the correlation from Shari`a College at Damascus mujahidin in Afghanistan,13 essentially between religious training and the University, and a Ph.D. in fiqh (Islamic deriving an order of combat precedence construction of the definition of takfir jurisprudence) from the renowned al- from the scriptures placing jihad for leaders of Salafi-jihadi movements.2 Azhar University in Cairo.9 His level against occupiers over reforming those This is established using four cases of of scholarly authority is rare among led astray from Islam.14 contemporary Salafi-jihadi leaders: Salafi-jihadis, especially those directly `Abdullah `Azzam, Ayman al-Zawahiri, engaged in physical warfare.10 Dr. Ayman al-Zawahiri Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi and Djamel Ayman al-Zawahiri, commonly referred Zitouni. For each case, the individual’s `Azzam continued to self-reinforce to as al-Qa`ida’s second-in-command, level and type of religious training his radical Salafist views as a lecturer. is one of the most influential leaders and his most recent definition of takfir He taught at the University of Jordan of the current Salafi-jihadi movement. are outlined and analyzed.3 Overall, in Amman and lectured at Abdul Aziz He has issued numerous communiqués the evidence suggests that the less University in Saudi Arabia where concerning every front of the global religiosity a jihadist leader has gained Salafi-jihad and has campaigned to unify via formal training, personal piety, 4 See, for example, `Abdullah `Azzam, Fi Dhilal Surat Salafi-jihadi movements worldwide 15 and/or the duration of his adherence to at-Tawbah (place, publisher and date unknown). Also see under the banner of al-Qa`ida. Salafist Islam, the more likely he is to Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower (London: Penguin Recently, al-Zawahiri’s authority has Books, 2006), p. 130. come under attack for al-Qa`ida’s 1 Ayman al-Zawahiri, “The Open Meeting with Shaykh 5 For further commentary on how misunderstandings Ayman al-Zawahiri,” al-Sahab, April 2, 2008. of Islam lead to extremist views, see Yusuf al-Qaradawi, 2 This article does not analyze the practical application Islamic Awakening: Between Rejection and Extremism 11 Peter Bergen, Holy War Inc. (New York: Free Press, of takfir by these individuals or their lieutenants. In prac- (Washington, D.C.: The International Institute of Islamic 2001), p. 50, p. 55. tice, takfir often varies from the definition created by the Thought, 1991). 12 `Azzam, Fi Dhilal Surat at-Tawbah. leader of an organization. 6 `Abdullah `Azzam, Defence of Muslim Lands (place, 13 Wright, The Looming Tower, pp. 131-137. 3 The most recent definition was chosen because such publisher and date unknown). 14 See `Azzam’s response to the question “Do we fight concepts are epistemologically constructed, resulting 7 Andrew McGregor, “Jihad and the Rifle Alone: ‘Abdul- alongside Muslims that are below acceptable levels of Is- in definitional variations throughout one’s lifetime. For lah ‘Azzam and the Islamist Revolution,” Journal of Con- lamic education?” in `Azzam, Defence of Muslim Lands. example, Kant discusses the construction of concepts flict Studies 23:2 (2003): pp. 92-113. 15 For example, in 2004 al-Qa`ida’s senior leadership through experience and the reconstruction of those con- 8 `Azzam, Defence of Muslim Lands. was successful in incorporating the part of the militant cepts once they are applied outside of the previous limits 9 McGregor, “Jihad and the Rifle Alone: ‘Abdullah ‘Az- Saudi Salafist movement and al-Zarqawi’s Jama`at al- of experience. For a full explanation of the construction zam and the Islamist Revolution,” pp. 92-113. Tawhid wal-Jihad under the al-Qa`ida name. Recently, of language and definitions, see Jerome Bruner, Acts of 10 While a number of Salafist scholars with credentials the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) Meaning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, similar to `Azzam advocate jihad, none have physically has also changed their name in a formal allegiance to al- 1990). taken up arms themselves. Qa`ida. JUNE 2008 . VOL 1 . ISSUE 7 expansive invocation of takfir.16 fiqh through personal studies, although Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi his neo-scripturalist hermeneutic Although Abu Mus`ab al-Zarqawi was Religious Training approach has likely been prejudiced by killed by U.S. forces in 2006, he remains Having no collegiate level religious his combat surroundings. one of the most popular jihadist figures training, al-Zawahiri’s understanding in contemporary history. During his few of Islam is derived mostly from the Definition of Takfir years in Iraq, he amassed a force capable religiosity of his upbringing (much of Al-Zawahiri embraces takfir, but of controlling cities,27 engineered a which was self-induced) and the ideas maintains a relatively selective definition sectarian clash that threatened a full- propagated within Islamist and jihadist of it. He views the governments ruling scale civil war28 and waged murder and organizations in which he has been over Muslim lands to be illegitimate and intimidation campaigns that continue involved. Al-Zawahiri was raised in apostate, to include civilian government today. He is hated by most Iraqis and is a strict Muslim family in Egypt where employees, security forces22 and any celebrated as a hero by much of the Salafi- he attended all of the daily prayers persons collaborating or engaging with jihadi community.29 Yet, for his fame, al- at the local mosque. His adolescence those entities.23 This is likely derived Zarqawi had one of the most latitudinal was devoted to Islamic self-studies, from his personal historical hatred and controversial definitions of takfir. especially concerning fiqh and Qur’anic for and experiences with the Egyptian interpretation.17 Throughout his regime rather than an objective Religious Training education, he was not openly involved analysis of the situation through the For the first 21 years of his life, al-Zarqawi in Islamist organizations; however, al- guidelines of fiqh. He also declared that was nearly antithetical to his later Zawahiri confessed to being a founder an organization, Islamist or not, which jihadist self. Raised in the anti-Amman and active member of a militant Islamist participates in the political process is milieu of Zarqa,30 he was described as a cell with a violent takfiri bent as a teen18 a transgressor,24 again derived from tattooed delinquent who drank heavily, and maintained a covert affiliation with personal differences with the Muslim experimented with drugs and was similar groups thereafter. Brotherhood rather than an educated involved in criminal activity. Al- hermeneutic ruling. Al-Zawahiri Zarqawi had no religious training until Several Islamists and jihadists informed accepts a great deal of collateral damage he was 22 when he was ordered to a al-Zawahiri’s interpretation of Islam in the form of “innocents,”