ARTICLE AVAILABLE ONLINE Twin Research and Human Genetics Volume 14 | Number 2 | pp. 158–168 Beyond the Big Five: The Dark Triad and the Supernumerary Personality Inventory Livia Veselka,1 Julie Aitken Schermer2 and Philip A. Vernon1 1 Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Canada 2 Management and Organizational Studies, University of Western Ontario, Canada The Dark Triad of personality, comprising Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, was investigated in relation to the Supernumerary Personality Inventory (SPI) traits, because both sets of variables are predomi- nantly distinct from the Big Five model of personality. Correlational and principal factor analyses were conducted to assess the relations between the Dark Triad and SPI traits. Multivariate behavioral genetic model- fitting analyses were also conducted to determine the correlated genetic and/or environmental underpinnings of the observed phenotypic correlations. Participants were 358 monozygotic and 98 same-sex dizygotic adult twin pairs from North America. As predicted, results revealed significant correlations between the Dark Triad and most SPI traits, and these correlations were primarily attributable to common genetic and non-shared envi- ronmental factors, except in the case of Machiavellianism, where shared environmental effects emerged. Three correlated factors were extracted during joint factor analysis of the Dark Triad and SPI traits, as well as a herita- ble general factor of personality — results that clarified the structure of the Dark Triad construct. It is concluded that the Dark Triad represents an exploitative and antisocial construct that extends beyond the Big Five model and shares a theoretical space with the SPI traits. ■ Keywords: personality, Dark Triad, Supernumerary Personality Inventory, behavioral genetics Antisocial and socially aversive personality traits — stable the Dark Triad, however, it remains enigmatic, particularly human characteristics that do not comply with established given its uncertain place in personality theory. Specifically, social and ethical codes and norms (Hott, 1979) — have the Dark Triad has shown inconsistent correlations with been subject to extensive research, first in clinical samples the Big Five model (e.g., Lee & Ashton, 2005; Vernon et al., (e.g., Macaskill, 1980; Raskin & Hare, 1978), and later in 2008b) — the conventional framework of personality. community populations (e.g., Moore & Katz, 1995; These inconsistencies suggest that the Dark Triad may lie Takahashi, 2007). In these latter community-based studies, outside the realm of the Big Five structure, although no three traits in particular have received considerable atten- evidence has yet been provided to support this notion. tion: Machiavellianism, as exhibited through cold and The inconsistencies also make it difficult to further manipulative behaviors (Christie & Geis, 1970), narcis- explore the Dark Triad because it has not shown reliable sism, as defined by excessive self-love and unrelenting correlations with available models, and has therefore not feelings of superiority (Raskin & Hall, 1979), and psy- progressed as far as it might have in its development as a chopathy, as characterized by high thrill-seeking behaviors personality construct. paired with diminished empathy (Hare, 1985). With the recent development of the Supernumerary Most recently, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psy- Personality Inventory (SPI) by Paunonen (2002), which chopathy have been grouped together into a single construct, labeled the Dark Triad by Paulhus and Williams (2002), who first reported strong associations between these subclinical traits. Since this initial analysis, several RECEIVED 22 October, 2010; ACCEPTED 25 November, 2010. studies have confirmed the existence of this Dark Triad ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE: Philip A. Vernon, Department of construct (e.g., Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006; Lee & Ashton, Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, 2005; Vernon et al., 2008b). Despite evidence validating Canada N6A 5C2. E-mail: [email protected] 158 Veselka, L., Aitken Schermer, J., & Vernon, P. A. (2011). Beyond the big five: The dark triad and the supernumerary personality inventory. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 14, 2, 158–168. DOI 10.1375/twin.14.2.158 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.126, on 01 Oct 2021 at 01:34:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.14.2.158 Dark Triad Versus the Supernumerary Personality Inventory measures 10 traits that lie beyond the Big Five model Behavioral Genetic Analyses of the Dark Triad (conventionality, seductiveness, manipulativeness, thrifti- and SPI Traits ness, humorousness, integrity, femininity, religiosity, Twin studies have been used in the assessment of Dark risk-taking, egotism) it may now be possible to elaborate Triad traits to determine the extent to which variance in upon our understanding of the Dark Triad traits. these traits is affected by genes and/or the environment. Specifically, the purpose of the present study is to clarify Behavioral genetic assessments of psychopathy, narcissism, the nature of the Dark Triad construct by identifying the and Machiavellianism have suggested that variance in the SPI traits with which it correlates. Further, by assessing the occurrence and stability of these traits can be accounted for strength of these correlations, and determining the extent by both genetic and non-shared environmental factors to which phenotypic correlations between the Dark Triad (e.g., Blonigen et al., 2006; Larsson et al., 2006; Livesley et traits and the SPI traits are attributable to common al., 1993; Taylor et al., 2003; Vernon et al., 2008b). genetic and/or environmental factors, the present study Correlations between the three Dark Triad traits have also also aims to establish whether the Dark Triad has empiri- been shown to be moderate (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), cal ties to a model that lies beyond the Big Five. although Vernon et al. (2008b) did report a non-significant correlation between Machiavellianism and narcissism. Relations Between the Dark Triad Traits To date, there have been no behavioral genetic investi- and the Traits Measured by the SPI gations carried out on all of the variables measured by the Several SPI traits, when examined individually, have exhib- SPI. However, some univariate behavioral genetic investi- ited correlations with all three Dark Triad variables. gations or assessments of heritability have been conducted Specifically, narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism on select traits that are presently subsumed by the SPI. have all shown positive associations with seductiveness Results from these investigations offer initial evidence (e.g., Foster et al., 2006; Grann, 2000; McHoskey, 2001; about the etiology of the ten traits that have supposedly Wilson et al., 1998), manipulativeness (e.g., Austin et al., evaded conventional personality models. 2007; Paulhus & Williams, 2002; Shepperd & Socherman, Past twin studies have noted that genetic and non- 1997; Watson et al., 1984), risk-taking or the related shared environmental effects primarily account for concept of sensation-seeking (e.g., Emmons, 1981; Rim, individual differences in conventionality (e.g., Bouchard et 1966; Vitacco & Rogers, 2001), and egotism (e.g., Paulhus al., 2003; Hatemi et al., 2007), seductiveness as derived & Williams, 2002). They have all further correlated neg- from studies of sociosexuality (Bailey et al., 2000), manip- atively with integrity (e.g., Ashton et al., 2000; Blair et ulativeness (Larsson et al., 2006), humorousness (Vernon al., 2008). et al., 2008a), femininity (e.g., Loehlin et al., et al., 2005; In addition to these common correlates, the Dark Mitchell et al., 1989), and risk-taking (e.g., Anokhin et al., Triad traits have also exhibited unique patterns of corre- 2009; Stoel et al., 2006). In addition to these genetic and lations with other variables presently subsumed by the non-shared environmental effects, shared environmental SPI. For instance, both Machiavellianism and narcissism influences have also been found to underlie variance in have shown positive associations with femininity (e.g., religiosity (e.g., Bradshaw & Ellison, 2008; D’Onofrio et Jackson et al., 1992; Nigro & Galli, 1985). Furthermore, al., 1999). The traits of thriftiness, integrity, and egotism Machiavellianism alone has correlated positively with a (in a non-narcissistic context) have not been exposed to preference for conservative values focusing on the mainte- behavioral genetic investigation. nance of tradition, which can be seen as a representation Present Study of SPI’s conventionality dimension (e.g., Krampen, 1980; The purpose of the present study is to gain a greater Shafiq, 1982; Stone & Russ, 1976), and only narcissism has understanding of the nature of the Dark Triad, and of its shown negative relations with religiosity (e.g., Ghorbani et place in the overall framework of human personality by al., 2004) and with thriftiness (Rose, 2007). Lastly, all three examining its association with the SPI, which has been Dark Triad traits have exhibited varied correlations with developed to measure 10 personality traits that exist different humor styles — ways in which humor is pro- beyond the Big Five structure. Correlations between the duced and understood (Martin et al., 2003). Specifically, Dark Triad and SPI variables will be